Saffron Agronomy and Technology
Year:2020 | Volume:8 | Issue:3|Papers Count:9

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of foliar application of Acadian seaweed extract and Biomix liquid poultry manure on vegetative growth, corm, and yield of saffron. The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications in the city of Ferdows city during the 2017-2018 growing year. Experimental treatments included four levels of Acadian seaweed extract (0, 1, 1. 5, and 2 kg. l000 L-1 water) and four levels of liquid Biomix liquid poultry manure (0, 4, 5, and 6 L. l000 L-1 water). The results showed a significant effect of treatments on the studied traits, such as maximum number of flowers (99. 50 N. m-2), fresh yield of flowers (33. 34 g. m-2), dry weight of saffron stigma (0. 341 g. m-2), dry leaf weight (0. 592 g plant-1), and leaf length (63. 75 cm) obtained in 2 kg. l000 L-1 seaweed extract. Besides, the results showed a significant effect of liquid poultry manure on flower number and yield (94. 250 N. m-2 and 32. 285 g. m-2, respectively), leaf length (60. 66 cm), fresh and dry leaf weight (0. 74 and 0. 46 g. m-2, respectively), and total weight of replacement corm (37. 02 g. m-2). Also, the least amount of the mentioned traits were observed from the control treatment. The interaction between these two fertilizers was also significant in fresh and dry leaf weight and the total and average diameter of replacement corm. Thus, fresh and dry leaf weight (210% and 273%, respectively) were highest in the treatment of 2 kg. l000 L-1 of seaweed extract and 6 L. l000 L-1 of liquid poultry manure. Moreover, total and average diameter of replacement corm (33% and 50%, respectively) were highest in the treatment of 2 kg. l000 L-1 of seaweed extract and no liquid poultry manure. According to the results of this study, the use of Acadian seaweed extract (2 kg. l000L-1 water) alone or in combination with Biomix liquid poultry manure (6 L. l000 L-1 water) can play an important role in enhancing the vegetative growth, corm, and yield of saffron.

One of the most serious problems in saffron production is that it is impossible to plant saffron again in a given farm. Therefore, it is essential to identify the reasons for not being able to plant saffron again in a given farm. This research was carried out in order to investigate the effect of residual soil of saffron, different ages of saffron field, its corm and extract on quantitative production of saffron in factorial as completely randomized design with three replications during 2016-2018, in a personal farm under natural conditions in Torbate Heydarieh, Iran. The first factor was soil age at three levels (including field soil without background of saffron cultivation (control treatment), field soil from which corms had been taken out two years ago, and soil under cultivation of saffron in the fourth year) and the second factor was the application of corm and its extract in three levels (including non-consumption of corm as control, crushed saffron corm 14 tons per hectare and consumption of aqueous extract of saffron corm with a concentration of 50 percent). The results showed that most traits were affected by treatments and their interactions. The cultivation of saffron in the field caused a significant reduction in the amount of leaf and flower components and their yield (more than 17 and 27 %, respectively). Also, using aqueous extract and crushed saffron corm reduced more than 10% of flower and leaf components and their yield. The highest stigma and leaf yield were observed in the control treatment (9. 88 and 240. 97 kg. ha-1, respectively) and the least stigma and leaf yield were observed in field soil two years after the outcrop and using crushed corms (2. 27 and 16. 09 kg. ha-1, respectively). So, it can be stated that remnants of saffron corm in the field significantly reduce the growth, reproduction, leaf and flower yield and its components and it is recommended that the cultivated saffron residues of the previous year be taken out from the soil for re-cultivation of saffron so that its harmful effects do not reduce the growth and yield of new saffron.

A field study with 3 replications based on RCBD was conducted in order to improve the efficacy of some herbicides using adjuvants in the control of broadleaf weeds of saffron. Oxadiazone, oxyfluorfen, rimsulfuron and dicamba+ tritosulfuron herbicides at recommended rates of 500, 700, 10 and 150 a. i. ha-1, respectively without adjuvants and in reduced rates 375, 480, 8. 75 and 112, respectively were used when they were tankmixed with and without citogate (0. 2% v. v-1) and humix 99 (0. 25% v. v-1) as well as a control plot with no herbicide application and hand weeding. Weed species of Polygonum aviculare and Cardaria draba with relative density of 26% and 20. 5%, respectively were the dominant weeds in the experimental field. The results showed that hand weeding significantly increased the yield of saffron flower and corm. Application of oxyflurfen and oxadiazone in reduced rates decreased saffron damage while addition of citogate to these herbicides increased the phytotoxicity damage in saffron. Addition of humix to these herbicides had no effect on phytotoxicity damage. Although application of rimsulfuron and dicamba+ tritosulfuron in reduced rates reduced phytotoxicity damage and increased yield of saffron, these herbicides have the potential to damage saffron even at reduced rates. Adding citogate to these herbicides can increase the efficacy of these herbicides in weeds control but considering the potential of these herbicides in damage to saffron, application of these herbicides in saffron fields is not recommended even at reduced doses. Application of oxyflurfen at 480 a. i. ha-1 without adjuvant and tank-mixed with humix were best treatments for use in saffron fields. However, it is also possible to use oxadiazone at 375 a. i. ha-1 to control saffron broadleaf weeds.

Saffron is one of the most important pharmaceutical plants in the world due to its valuable secondary metabolites. The aim of this study is to investigate the different factors on callus induction and growth in saffron corm explants. In the first experiment, saffron corms surface were sterilized and were excised to equal segments, then they were treated with ultrasound and then they were cultured on MS medium supplemented with 2 mg. L-1 auxin (NAA and 2, 4-D) and 0. 5 mg. L-1 Kinetin. In the second experiment, the effect of temperature, light and chitosan were evaluated. The results of analysis of variance showed that there were significant differences (P≤ 0. 05) among temperature, light, chitosan as well as ultrasound treatments in terms of callus induction percentage and fresh weight of callus. Callus induction and growth on MS medium containing 2 mg. L-1 NAA + 0. 5 mg. L-1 Kin was higher than those containing 2 mg. L-1 2, 4-D +0. 5 mg. L-1 Kin. In MS medium containing 2, 4-D which had low callus induction and callus growth rate, utilization of ultrasound stimulated callus induction and especially it stimulated callus growth from saffron corm explants. In addition, in MS medium containing 2, 4-D, utilization of 0. 25 g. L-1 chitosan stimulated callus induction and increased callus induction of saffron corm explants. However, increasing chitosan concentration from 0. 25 mg. L-1 to 0. 75 g. L-1 decreased callus induction and callus growth, while, in MS medium containing NAA, which had efficient callus induction and growth, utilization of these treatments reduced callus induction and callus growth from saffron corm explants. In other words, the effect of ultrasound and chitosan on response of saffron explants in vitro cultures was used, depending on the type of auxin used in composition of the culture medium. Generally, the highest percentage of callus induction occurred on MS medium supplemented with 2 mg. L-1 NAA + 0. 5 mg. L-1 Kin and incubated at 25 º C in the dark, which could be suitable for in vitro culture and gene transfer studies in saffron.

In this research, concentrations of vanadium, chromium, manganese, cobalt, zinc, and arsenic were measured in saffron and saffron farm soil in two counties of Torbat Heydariyeh and Zaveh as two main centers of saffron production in the world using the neutron activation analysis method. The soil chromium and cobalt concentrations of all farms were found to be much higher than the WHO level and the values of vanadium, manganese, zinc, and arsenic were lower than the admissible level. The deficiency of essential elements for plant growth in the soil was not found. Two statistical analyses were used to evaluate the results of neutron activation analysis. The results of the paired t-test showed that the concentrations of vanadium, manganese, chromium, and cobalt were similar in different soil depths, which indicated distribution of these elements in the soil to be uniform. Also, only the zinc concentrations in the corm and its surrounding soil were statistically significant, which could indicate a strong movement of this element from soil to saffron. This test also showed that the distribution of the elements was uniform in the shoots. The correlation coefficients show that the uptake of cobalt and manganese by the saffron may decrease by increasing concentration of zinc in the soil. In addition, based on the contamination index and geo-accumulation, all soils in Torbat Heydarieh and Zaveh are extremely contaminated by chromium. In the adjacent areas in these two counties (south of Torbat Heydarieh and the west of Zaveh), and the central zone of Zaveh, the contamination levels of arsenic in the soil were found to be moderate and very high, respectively. Saffron crops were estimated uncontaminated in all farms, except in eastern Zaveh and south of Torbat Heydarieh that were contaminated by chrome. According to both indices of load and degree of contamination, the soil of all saffron farms were found to be highly contaminated. Soil contamination was evaluated to be extreme by the using both pollution load Index (PLI) and contamination degree (CD). In addition, saffron threads were found to be totally uncontaminated (except in the south of Torbat Heydarieh, where the crop was moderately polluted), according to PLI and CD.

The classification of saffron as the most expensive spice is of great importance for customers and traders. In general, two methods are currently used to classify saffron. The first method is based on the experiences of an expert and by observing the samples. The second method is destructive and is performed using laboratory methods. According to experts, the use of machine learning techniques to classify saffron is a goal due to its non-destructive nature and timely characteristics. This method can also increase the accuracy of the industrial scale grading process. In this paper, a vision machine method is presented. Due to lack of documented research on this subject, a comprehensive literature search is presented in this work. Almost all color characteristics were extracted and used in a large number of classifiers. Experts in Iran classify saffron into three main categories based on their appearance: Pushal, Negin and Sargol. In this paper, a database consisting of 440 images from saffron for the three different classes was collected using a mobile phone camera. After applying some preprocessing steps, such as background removal, cropping etc., 21 color features were extracted using different image analysis methods. Twenty-two classifiers were employed for classification. Comparing results of different classifiers showed that the Linear Discriminant, Linear SVM, Bagged Trees and RUSBoost Trees can produce more accurate grading compared to other classifiers when using color features. In particular, mean classification accuracy of 82. 23% was achieved in this work using Linear a SVM classifier.

Considering increasing competition in global markets, it is important to have a comprehensive understanding of target markets for market planning. One of the factors influencing international marketing strategies selection is assessment of the market structure in importing countries. Therefore, this study has pursued two main goals of determining the market structure of important saffron importing countries and investigating the effect of this variable on Iranian saffron to further the research literature on saffron export as one of the most important export products of the Iranian agricultural sector. To achieve these objectives, the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index has been used to calculate the market structure and the gravity model has been applied to determine this variable’ s impact on Iran's exports over the period of 2001-2017. Market structure results showed that out of the 16 main countries importing saffron, no country had a fully competitive structure and there was a degree of monopoly in all markets. Also, the results of changes in the market structure of saffron importing countries during the period of 2001-2010 and 2011-2017 showed that the market structure of 7 countries Argentina, China, Germany, Japan, Spain, Sweden and the United Arab Emirates have become more monopolistic and 9 other countries have got more competitive structures. According to the results of the gravity model, the market structure of the importing countries has had a significant effect on Iranian saffron exports and the more competitive target markets have caused reduction of Iranian saffron exports. Hence, as saffron target markets become more competitive, it is suggested that exporters pay more attention to improving their competitive components in the markets, especially packaging. In accordance with world standards, packaging should be based on the quality of the product and provide complete information for customers.

Changing the use of agricultural land in the village mainly due to human activities, has had social, economic, and. . . direct consequences on human life in addition to indirect environmental changes. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effects and consequences of cultivation of saffron in recent years on the lives of villagers in the village of Miyanjam of the Torbate jam County. The research method in this research is descriptive-analytic and its type is fundamental in terms of purpose. Documentary and observational methods have been used to collect data. The sample population is 10 villages in the rural district of Miyanjam that have the highest level of cultivation of saffron. From 3444 families in sample rural areas the sample size of 115 households was selected by the random sampling method using Cochran formula and error (0. 08%), . The results of this study show that, in terms of villagers, the effect of changing the pattern of cultivation in socio-cultural indicators was 3. 84 in the least and in the physical indices with the mean of 4 it had the most effect. According to the results of single sample T test, the effects of saffron cultivation on the economic index with the value of 56. 65 are more than other indicators. In the spatial distribution, the mean of the effects of saffron cultivation on the level of villages is Emogan village with the highest number of 4. 2 and the villages of Bashzandan Olya and Hajiabadwith the lowest level of 86. 3. The results of ARAS's technique for accurate ranking of sample villages confirmed this. In order to investigate the significance of the relationship between research variables, the coefficient of effectiveness of the indices was determined using the Smart PLS software. The path coefficient of t indicated that the relationship between environmental, physical and economic variables with the general effects of saffron cultivation in the sampled villages was meaningful and direct. According to standard coefficients, 36% of the effects of saffron cultivation are predicted directly by the economic index.

The lack of a clear competitive strategy is one of the major problems of Iranian saffron companies to gain a competitive advantage in domestic and international markets. Therefore, the Picocrocin main purpose of this study is to rank the factors affecting competitive advantage in the domestic and international markets of Iranian saffron. Therefore, the importance of marketing resources and competitive strategies for one of the major producers and suppliers of saffron is investigated in this study considering market position theory and resource-based view. A pairwise comparison-based questionnaire is used to collect opinions of experts in the company. Using the analytic hierarchy process method, the results of the study showed that the differentiation strategy has the most effect in gaining competitive advantage. The results also indicate that particular attention must be paid to managerial and customer relationship capabilities in executing the differentiation strategy. Accordingly, improving financial conditions and understanding customers' needs and requirements are among the approaches that lead to development of key company capabilities and gaining competitive advantage in saffron markets.