IRANIAN JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE TEACHING RESEARCH
Year:2019 | Volume:7 | Issue:1|Papers Count:10

Happy 2019! It gives me great pleasure to greet you on the eve of the new year with the news of the publication of our January issue. With your support as readers and contributors, we have now grown up to school age: we have just entered age seven, a testimony that we have successfully passed through our infancy period and are stronger than ever. Following our past achievements in recently being indexed in Web of Science (ESCI), I would like to so proudly announce that our ISC ranking has significantly improved in its most recent evaluation which has just been released. Jumping from a Q2 to a Q1 journal, IJLTR has achieved the highest IF among all English journals on Humanities (including Education, Literature, Applied Linguistics, etc. ). Our new impact factor of 0. 657 is the highest among some 135 Humanities journals, attesting to IJLTR’ s highest publication standards winning it the rank of #1. This achievement is a landmark gain and I would like to extend my sincere appreciations to journal board members, reviewers and all contributors whose unfailing and wholehearted academic support yields more fruit every season. Enjoy this new year gift, as this is a moment to remember and celebrate! This issue of IJLTR like its predecessors features seven research papers of national and international scope on various dimensions of language education as well as two book reviews and an interview. In the first paper, Olivier Jako studies the development of a writing self-rating scale through autonomography while Rashidi and Hosseini survey the perceptions of Iranian policymakers in Iran’ s foreign language policy document in the second paper. In a multiple case study, Mark Teng examines learner identity and investment in learning in a Chinese context in paper three and Asagri, Ketabi and Amirian look at interest and achievement in L2 reading as a result of internet based teaching in the following paper. The relationship between teacher’ s burnout and motivation is the focus of paper five by Rouhani and Dayeri, and in the next paper Ebadi and his co-researchers compare the rhetorical structure in abstracts and introductions of masters theses written by Iraqi and other international students while Munalim and Gonog study student-teachers’ spoken reflection with an aim to developing a reflection inventory. The book reviews are on written corrective feedback (by Yi) and English grammar for research (by Javidi). There is finally an interview with Prof. Henry Widdowson and Prof. Barbara Seidlehofer (by Salahshoor). It is my sincere hope that our readers will find something of value in this issue and help us flourish further by sending us their quality research productions on topics that they think have not been sufficiently covered in our previous issues. Let me remind you that our 2019 Special Issue is devoted to Reflective Practice in TESOL and will be guest-edited by Prof. Thomas Farrell (Brock University, Canada), the deadline for submission to which is 1 March 2019.

Henry Widdowson is an authority in the field of applied linguistics and language teaching. Widdowson is perhaps best known for his contribution to communicative language teaching. However, he has also published on other related subjects such as discourse analysis and critical discourse analysis, the global spread of English, English for Special Purposes and stylistics. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning calls him "probably the most influential philosopher of the late twentieth century for international ESOL" (p. 674). Widdowson is Emeritus Professor of Education, University of London, and has also been Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of Essex and Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Vienna, where he holds an Honorary Professorship. Since the 1990s, Widdowson lives and works in Vienna. He (HW) and his wife Barbara Seidlhofer (BS) were invited to give plenary talks at Shahid Madani University of Azerbaijan (Tabriz) in 2018. The following is an interview by Dr Farzad Salahshoor (FS) with these scholars at the conference venue. . .

Written corrective feedback (CF) is a traditionally ubiquitous pedagogical practice in L2 teaching, but its contribution to L2 development has been relatively ignored. Since Truscott (1996) claimed that written CF is ineffective in L2 development and should be abandoned, a lot of researchers and practitioners have extensively investigated its role within the framework of second language acquisition and L2 writing (Ene & Kosobucki, 2016). However, no conclusive results have been obtained. Written corrective feedback for L2 development comprehensively reviews available studies on written CF from cognitive and sociocultural perspectives and outlines the directions of future research. The book consists of six chapters. Chapter 1, a general introduction of the book, begins with the aim of the book, which is to explore the impact of written CF “ on the learning of the L2” (p. 1). Then two key terms, written CF and L2 development, are defined, and the pedagogical and theoretical importance of written CF for L2 development is noted, followed by the presentation of the structure of the book. The next two chapters theoretically and empirically explore the contribution of written CF to L2 development from a cognitive perspective. Chapter 2 examines the theoretical foundations of written CF from the cognitive perspective. It first explains the differences between two types of linguistic competence (i. e., learnt and acquired) and knowledge (i. e., implicit and explicit) with reference to the essential goal of L2 learning. Supported by skill acquisition theories (e. g., adaptive control of thought model and information processing model), the claim is justified that explicit L2 knowledge can be converted to implicit, acquired knowledge through meaningful contextualized practice. As explicit forms of input, different types of written CF have different potential contributions to L2 development, in accordance with different stages of the cognitive processing of L2 information proposed by Gass’ (1997) computational framework (i. e., attention to input, comprehension of input, intake, integration and output). However, this idealized learning route toward L2 acquisition may be facilitated or interrupted by the type of written CF that learners are provided with as well as some individual factors (e. g., learners’ working memory and language learning aptitude) and contextual factors (e. g., social relationships in the classroom and instructional practices in language learning) that learners are exposed to. The extent to which these factors empirically influence the role of written CF in L2 development is the central concern of the next chapter. Chapter 3 empirically reviews cognitively informed research on the potential of written CF for L2 development. The studies reviewed are both theoretically and pedagogically driven in that they focus on whether written CF can be facilitative of L2 development as well as to what extent it works. Specifically, studies are critically reviewed in relation to the effectiveness of different types of written CF (e. g., direct error correction vs. less explicit written CF, direct error correction vs. direct error correction with more explicit written CF, and metalinguistic feedback vs. other types of written CF), the function of written CF targeting specific linguistic error types (e. g., item-based vs. rule-based forms/structures), and the efficacy of focused and unfocused written CF (i. e., CF limited to certain error categories vs. comprehensive CF). The findings of the studies mentioned above are quite contradictory due to design/execution flaws, the interaction of different individual cognitive factors (e. g., grammatical sensitivity and metalinguistic language), or individual affective and contextual factors (e. g. attitudes and beliefs about written CF and language learning backgrounds). Even though it has been empirically and theoretically corroborated that written CF has the potential to facilitate learners’ explicit L2 knowledge development, “ little attention has been given to investigations of the information processing that occurs from written CF input to modified output” (p. 66), which indicates the direction of future research. Chapters 4-5 present sociocultural tenets closely related to written CF and critically evaluate empirical studies conducted from the sociocultural stance. Chapter 4 commences with an overview of sociocultural theory (SCT), particularly on how it views development. Then two sets of interrelated constructs in SCT (i. e., Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding) are introduced to explain the features of effective written CF (i. e., graduated, contingent and dialogic). Mediation and tools are also discussed to explain how written CF is delivered and processed. As an extension of SCT, activity theory (AT) combines individual and contextual variables to elaborate learners’ responses to written CF. From the sociocultural perspective, L2 development is mediated between learners and external factors, in which learners gradually internalize object-and other-regulated items, ultimately completing a language-based task independently through social interactions. Properly speaking, learners’ L2 development involves both improved accuracy in subsequent text writing and increasing self-regulation in learning. In a word, SCT and AT help improve understanding of how and why written CF may facilitate learners’ L2 development. However, development is dynamic including both progress and regression. In order to maximize its effectiveness, written CF should be attuned to learners’ evolving needs (e. g., the goals the learners intend to achieve and the context where written CF occurs). Therefore, longitudinal studies are warranted to reveal how the written CF activity changes over time. Chapter 5 evaluates studies on written CF within the framework of SCT and AT. Though considerably small both in number and in scale, but is longitudinal and interpretative, this body of research takes the form of a case study design with qualitative and quantitative data collected from authentic language learning environments. This chapter starts with the evaluation of empirical studies comparing the effectiveness of scaffolded and non-scaffolded written CF provided by teachers and peers within ZPD. Then the authors review studies on the impact of two types of mediational tools (i. e., symbolic and material) on providing and processing written CF. Within the framework of AT, written CF is viewed as an activity, involving how learners respond to teachers’ CF, what teachers’ practices are in the process of providing CF and how learners react to peers’ CF, in which individual and context-specific factors interact. This illustrates the complexities of teachers’ written CF practices and learners’ responses. The obvious defect in such studies is the lack of the analysis of learners’ new writing, just as the authors comment, “ although these studies are often longitudinal, they do not always consider the impact of written CF on L2 development” (p. 118). Chapter 6 serves as a conclusion summarizing the theoretical and empirical discussions of how and why written CF facilitates L2 development from cognitive and sociocultural perspectives, which serves as a basis for the authors to briefly depict what has been gained and what has been ignored. Finally, they propose future research. The book integrates theoretical discussions and empirical investigations on written CF under cognitive and sociocultural perspectives, which “ provide complementary insights on written CF on L2 writing” (p. 135). It not only helps us have a better understanding of the theoretical and empirical status quo of written CF research, but also gives us pedagogical suggestions on how to maximize the effectiveness of written CF in L2 teaching. It is extremely valuable for researchers and practitioners. However, no research is perfect; this volume is no exception. First of all, the distinction between explicit and implicit knowledge is too simplistic. The authors argue that the former can be converted to the latter through practice; however, how the conversion is realized is not fully explained. After all, there is no one-to-one relationship between explicit/implicit learning and explicit/implicit knowledge. Ender (2016) argues that what learners gain from explicit learning may be implicit knowledge. Furthermore, the authors acknowledge that individual factors may impact on learners’ processing of written CF. Nonetheless, some important individual factors have been overlooked in existing studies, such as personality and language learning strategies. Khanlarzadeh & Nemati (2016) also hold that there is a need to investigate the affective impact of written CF. If more individual factors were incorporated, a much deeper understanding would be obtained of the potential of written CF for L2 development. In spite of the above-mentioned limitations, the book is highly recommended for those interested in written CF. Even though providing written CF is a time-consuming job for practitioners, it is widely held that it not only improves learners’ writing skills, but also facilitates their language development. Therefore, more theoretical discussions and empirical investigations are needed on the contribution of written CF to L2 development.

Writing involves a number of skills and being self-directed in the process would contribute to greater effectivity. The concept of autonomography, or being self-directed in terms of writing, draws from the literature on self-directed learning and specifically self-directed writing, where concepts such as selfregulation and learner autonomy are relevant in the language learning process. This study entailed the development of a self-directed writing questionnaire through a thorough overview of the pertinent literature and a consultative process with language experts in order to explore the nature of autonomography among a selected Afrikaans-speaking university student population. The statistical factor analyses confirm that autonomography involves a writer's self-directedness, voice and selfinvolvement, self-assessment and problem-solving, preference for own and expressive language, sensitivity towards other languages and language varieties, metacognitive skills, approach to selfdirected writing on computer as well as editing and problem-solving on computer. These factors provide measures but also key areas of development in writing instruction. In addition, the level of autonomography was also explored in terms of preference for creative writing as opposed to a more functional writing.

The present study was an attempt to investigate the perceptions of the Iranian foreign language policy makers as articulated in Iran’ s foreign language policy document using a systemic functional linguistics approach. To this end, the type of processes and participants who have been used in Iran’ s foreign language policy document were identified and interpreted in light of the assumptions of systemic functional linguistics and the related literature. The findings point out that the foreign language education policy document is heavily influenced by and draws on well-entrenched ideological, historical, religious, and political discourses. Further interpretations show that the FLEP document is heavily influenced by what is referred to as the Islamic ideology and discourse. In addition, applying a systemic functional linguistics approach to the document also offers a host of other interesting information about the Iranian foreign language teaching policymakers underlying perceptions about foreign language teaching and issues of globalization and imperialism. The concept of agency and how it is deemed by the Iranian foreign language practitioners was another identified topic. An investigation of the National Document of Education that includes the FLEP document as one of its subsections further showed that teachers have been appropriately described as autonomous individuals who possess the required agency to conduct and direct the classroom learning and teaching processes. Investigations also provide information on the perceptions of the Iranian foreign language education policymakers about the age that students must begin the learning of a foreign language at school.

Existing research on learner identity stresses a need to explore how the way one perceives oneself as an EFL learner has impacts on his or her investment in the endeavor to learn English. Likewise, examining the factors that influence identity and investment in EFL learning is also essential. In the present study, data were triangulated to explore the way three Chinese college English major students negotiated and navigated identity in the process of English learning. The findings indicated that the learners displayed identity flux within and across various communities. Learner identity shaped their investment in English learning, and vice versa. Learner identity, which can be negotiated and constructed over time, is complex and dynamic, involving at least four factors, which include learners’ cognitive awareness/ideology; perceptions of affordances in English learning community; learners’ sense of agency; and mismatches between the practiced community and the imagined community. Pedagogical implications and areas for ongoing research are discussed.

This study reports the findings of the research conducted on the effects of Interest-Based Language Teaching (IBLT) on Persian students’interest in L2 learning,and their achievement in reading comprehension,With the aim of improving L2 learning in the university level,the study investigated whether selecting instructional materials based on learners’interest areas could impact their interest in language learning,Furthermore,it examined whether selecting instructional materials based on interest would have any influence on learners’performance in L2 reading,It also examined any significant differences between the learners with high and low L2 reading levels in terms of interest,The participants were sixty first-year nursing students in a nursing college,Both questionnaires and tests were employed to collect the data,The collected data were closely examined and analyzed using independent-samples t-test,The results revealed that (1) personalizing the materials could make a significant contribution to the development and enhancement of students' interest level in L2 learning;(2) selecting the instructional materials based on learners’interest areas could improve their performance in L2 reading comprehension;and (3) in using IBLT,there was no significant difference between learners with different levels of reading proficiency in learning the course materials,

Burnout is a persistent, negative, work-related state which involves mental, emotional, or physical exhaustion. Teacher burnout has been a major concern in mainstream education in recent years. However, it has been less examined among EFL teachers. Therefore, this study adopted a mixed methods sequential design to fill the gap by (a) identifying some Iranian EFL teachers’ burnout and motivation profiles, (b) examining the (possible) relationship between their burnout and motivation to teach, and (c) investigating motivational factors which would predict teacher burnout. To these ends, 115 EFL teachers from language schools in southwest Iran took part in this study. To collect the data, Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey, developed by Maslach and Jackson (1986), Motivation to Teach Questionnaire, developed by Soenens, Sierens, Vansteenkiste, Dochy, and Goossens (2012), and a follow-up semi-structured interview with 15 participants were employed. Descriptive statistics showed that the EFL teachers had low levels of burnout and were autonomously motivated in their teaching. Correlation analysis also revealed negative relationship between autonomous forms of motivation (i. e., intrinsic and identified ( and burnout. Moreover, multiple regression analysis demonstrated that the autonomous forms of motivation and external regulation could be better predictors of EFL teachers’ burnout. The qualitative data from the interviews provided further insight nto the quantitative results and explained some person-and work-related factors in relation to teacher burnout. Some implications are finally provided for decision-makers in the area of EFL pedagogy to improve EFL teachers’ autonomous motivation to reduce their burnout experience.

Writing a Master of Arts (MA) thesis is a challenging task for postgraduate students. This complexity is of great significance when one is writing in his/her second language. From this perspective, genrecentered approaches help non-natives enhance their understanding of academic and scientific texts. This study is intended to comparatively investigate the rhetorical differences/similarities existing in the abstracts and introduction sections of MA theses produced by Iraqi and international students in the field of Applied Linguistics (AL). To achieve this goal, two groups of MA theses (30 theses each) were randomly selected. Hyland’ s (2000) proposed model and Chen and Kuo’ s (2012) framework were utilized in order to categorize the rhetorical structures in abstract and introduction sections, respectively. The findings showed that Iraqi university students included the steps of (a) Research hypotheses and (b) Outlining thesis structures in their abstracts while these rhetorical features were absent in their international counterparts. Iraqi students also discussed results in the abstracts more frequently than international MA students. Furthermore, although both Iraqi and international MA students utilized the moves with similar frequencies in their introduction chapters, international students utilized various steps for the realization of Move 1 and Move 3. The findings call for a genrebased approach in teaching academic writing to raise the students’ awareness of these schematic organizations in MA thesis writing classes in EFL contexts.

Reflective Teaching as a relatively new approach toward teaching and education can be traced back to Dewey’ s (1933) assertion of reflective action. To date, methodologies remain almost recursive. Arguably, the modality of written genres may tempt the teachers to produce cursory reflective writings. This exploratory paper presents the sorts of linguistic stance resources such as boosters, hedges and attitude markers culled from one-hour case of spoken, peer reflection with three English practice teachers. Themes were analysed from these linguistic stance resources. Overall, the studentteachers’ reflection is enthused with a seesaw between force and conviction; mitigation, apprehensions, and misgivings of teaching-learning practices. Arguably, this pendulum results in the unstable positive and negative affective attitude about the teaching-learning process. Based on the themes, indicators for reflective practices were added to the reflective inventory designed by Akbari, Behzadpoor, and Dadvand (2010). Limitations, linguistic research trajectories and implications for mentoring are offered accordingly.