HONAR-HA-YE-ZIBA
Year:2008 | Volume:- | Issue:32|Papers Count:17

This research is an effort to reveal the role of collective rituals in the spatial structure of traditional Iranian cities. The hypothesis is that not only the environmental variables and technology shape the structure of the traditional cities but it is the collective rituals (the processions and the sessions) that make the physical form and composition of urban spaces meaningful. To follow up the hypothesis the first step was to trace the concept of collective rituals and its relation to the urban configuration. There are different schools of thought in regard to the rituals, their contents, functions and relations to the myths. In all cases, it is the symbolic concepts that enrich the rituals. They emerge through the behavioral patterns (both individual and social) and influence in the city shape and structure. Although there are many rituals perform in Iran from the ancient times, none of them has the importance, unity (despite its diversity), and continuity as the mourning rituals for the third Imam in the Shiite tradition, the Imam Hossein. So the second step was to analyze a traditional city to find out the influences of the Moharram rituals in the spatial form and structure of a city. The study focused on the traditional texture of Semnan as the case study. Some historical documents claim Semnan to be an ancient city dating originally from the Persian mythological dynasty of Pishdadian. In the Islamic Period especially from the 11th century onwards, the city had become well established. The study shows that there is a mutual relation between the ceremony and the city form. The communal ritual affects and is affected by the form of the city. The procession, as the truly civic rites brings together into the streets and alleys persons from all the districts. The route of procession in Semnan indicates the significance of the halting spaces, the tekyehs. The term refers to an independent space penetrating into urban fabric to interlink the everyday life of the people with spiritual values. This study shows the rich visual qualities and symbolic meanings the tekyeks hold. The diversity of these spaces is clearly seen as resulting from the interplay of a number of factors such as the mode of circulating within the space, its location, and movement toward the space. The contributions of this research can be summarized in four conclusions. They could be applied in theory, practice and future research: The first conclusion is related to the importance of tekyehs as the urban open spaces. They are symbolic and ritual spaces. They are different from the districts squares. The second conclusion is about the rules that have shaped such spaces. The study shows that they follow the similar patterns and relative sizes with square plans. The locations of the tekyehs are the third conclusion. They are usually located within the residential fabric, in the intervals of two or more streets. Their distances from each other are relatively similar. The last conclusion relates to the performance of the ceremony which is focused on the center and the way the routes concludes to it.

During the past century, decline of pedestrian share in the transportation system has led to ever increasing congestion, pollutions, insecurity, and lack of vitality in neighborhoods at city centers and beyond. In recent years, however, attempts are also made to regenerate those areas through a pedestraianization effort in order to preserve or redirect the neighborhoods toward sustainability. Cities are expected to move toward more dependency on pedestrian movement in order to reduce fossil energy consumption, improve physical and mental health of people, heighten the level of inter-personal relations between citizens, and improve the social and cultural quality of urban living. The aim of this article is to identify those factors and indices which affect pedestrian movement. Here, the District 6 of Tehran Municipality is used as a case study. Factor Analysis is used to develop ten indices from a set of seemingly unrelated variables in order to measure the walkability potential in residential and mixed neighborhoods. This set of indices was then classified to measure the level of walkability in the study area. This made it possible to identify ten criteria influencing the pedestrian movement such as safety, pleasantness/attractiveness and amenity, Transportation/mobility, accessibility, connectivity/transit, link between land uses and transportation, sustainability of environment/vitality, security, education/public health, and local socio-cultural behavior. The objective is to test the effect of those factors upon walkability. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is also utilized to create thematic maps from those criteria and, through overlays, produce maps which show the various levels of walkability along certain streets. The kriging method within the GIS environment helped in data interpolation in order to obtain a continuous layer made of discontinuous sample points. Based on this technique, the weight of each question influencing each variable was extracted. Thus, preparing layers of information from sample locations in the form of maps and allocation of the estimated value of the variables as descriptive information to geographic data were the main tasks performed in GIS. Location maps were created for all the indices and main physical and cultural parameters influencing walkability. Again, using PCA, the weight and importance of these layers on the physical and socio-cultural parameters were estimated. Next, through Nap Overlay Technique, two cultural and physical layers were obtained. This process was separately repeated for residential and mixed land use, and a final layer of walkability potential for each was prepared. 149 pedestrians were surveyed between 8 to 10 pm in neighborhood in four streets of Enghelab, Vesal, Boulevard Keshavarz, and Felestin. The survey concentrated on views of the respondents as pedestrians toward the street condition regarding walkability. Here, the two main parameters which are associated with walkability are identified as physical and socio-cultural. The walkability maps, however, indicate that the significance of association is not uniform across different land uses. Rather, in the residential areas, physical factors have greater influence on walkability while in the mixed areas; the socio-cultural factors play the more important role. The results also show that the walkability potential in four main streets in the study area is also correlated with the environmental situation and the time spent for walking.

Historically, patterns of urban settlements and residential development have changed because of various reasons. In the post industrial revolution period, rapid urban population growth rate together with technological advancements have been the major factors affecting the forms and shapes of residential complexes. Beside the growth of apartment patterns, residential complexes are now a dominant pattern. This pattern is assumed that should consider residential developments as appropriate neighborhoods having enough green and open spaces to create sociable societies. Rapid population growth rate in Iran in the last few decades caused housing provision to be a key urban problem. To respond this problem, mass housing production has become a major housing policy for government, municipalities as well as planners and architects. As it is evident, mass housing production has many positive aspects, including economic efficiencies and technological advantages. In this process, however, consideration of planning principles and criteria become very important issue in the creation of appropriate living environment. This article considers the above mentioned concepts through a comparative study on two different patterns of residential complexes in Tehran, using several key principles and criteria. The first case relates to a complex of conventional high rise buildings, namely Eskan, built in 1960s. It includes three towers; each has 23 stories with the building area ratio (F.A.R) of 100 % and the floor area ratio about 1000%. The second case is Nour (Seoul) residential complex built in 1980s. It includes 12 walk-up apartments with 5 stories in average. Building area ratio in this project is about 35 % and its floor ratio (F.A.R) is 180%. These different characteristics have made different physical-spatial aspects in each residential environment from the viewpoints of creation appropriate living space and providing adequate urban public facilities and services. In order to compare these two different residential complexes regarding the quality of housing and residential environment, a comparative study was undertaken using six basic urban planning principles and criteria, including roads and quality access, urban public facilities, physical principles, environmental and socio-cultural criteria. A questionnaire method was used to consider the residents viewpoints. The findings of the study reveal that in the low rise pattern (the case of Nour project), a higher quality of residential environment has been achieved. In the scoring process, lower density and the existence of open and green spaces have been major factors made the low rise case project gaining more score than the high rise case. In contrast, the second case, (Eskan project) have not achieved the principles and criteria for an appropriate environment. The study shows the importance of consideration principles and criteria in the planning process of residential buildings. The findings reveal that density increase in residential complexes does not necessarily mean that mass housing production is appropriate. The most important goals and objectives in the process of mass housing production must be creation of appropriate living environment through the consideration of urban planning principles and criteria, including quality access, access to public facilities, physical principles, environmental and socio-cultural criteria.

An examination of attitudes of current design thinking and its established generic forms in comparison to the idea held by architects during the first part of the twentieth century is fundamental to understanding the sources and limitations of neighborhood theory in urban design. The purpose of this article is to provide a contextual knowledge that is necessary for interpretation of the theoretical basis of generic solutions for better understanding current models of residential design. During the twentieth century, two major stream of Modern Movement, namely Rationalism and Empiricism, have suggested two clearly separated generic forms of neighborhood. Based on both ideas designer concerns have been to accommodate the social organization of communities in a designed physical environment. These two lines of thought were manifested in the Garden City Movement and the CIAM in two different ways and had both physical and social consequences on the following designed residential environments. The neighborhood plan of Clarence Perry, as implemented in Radburn, and the Unite habitation of Le Corbusier in Marsielles, might be two polar opposite attitudes towards residential design. Residential design paradigms which have emerged in recent decades are broadly categorized by some researchers under two main stream of thought namely Neo-Rationalism and Neo-Empiricism. The rationalists still design based on their own imagined person and assumptions about the good life while empiricists tend to design based on information about human behavior and the built environment. In the second line of thought which is closer to the objectives of this article, two major concepts can be identified. The first of these is the typological approach, and the second is the work of the researchers and designers who have used people experiences of built environment in their design process. An analysis of the design paradigms during the 20th century shows that, for the designers who have used the typological based paradigms, there is a general agreement regarding the physical composition of neighborhood. They all propose a model of residential design that is limited in area and structured around a defined center. While the population density may vary depending on design context and size, each model offers a balanced mix of dwellings, work places, shops, public buildings and parks. Using three dimensional design schemes and attention to detail are important features of recent design paradigms. The general trend is toward the design of compact and socially responsive residential environments. In spite of the similarities of recent design paradigms to earlier design models, in both approaches of recent residential design, designers and critics have paid more attention to the variety of user needs. This is partly based on changing attitudes of researchers and designers toward environmental issues and using the outcome of research for proposing design schemes. It is also partly based on the changing expectations of people and their demands for a better quality of residential accommodation. Therefore, investigation of people experiences in design settings, while improving the efficiency of design guidelines can in return enhance the ability of designers to create better design schemes.

The challenge of development and conservation is one of the most controversial issues in contemporary Iranian architecture and historic fabric safeguarding. Our comprehensive studies show that there are two main approaches in contemporary Iranian experiences. The first one persists in change and development, and the second in authenticity and Conservation. 1- The first one is development-dominated approaches, which have a considerable tendency in dismantling valuable historic districts. These approaches are focused on reconstruction, renewal, redevelopment and direct macro interventions in urban fabrics, instead of conservation and safeguarding. There is a tendency for and flagship, prestigious and large-scale projects. They look historic buildings and valuable fabrics as intimidating factors, and urban regeneration plans as the most liberating occasions.2- The second is conservation-dominated approaches, which have a considerable tendency in preserving all the buildings which is located in historic districts. These approaches are focused on the conservation of old settings. There is tendencies for preserving all the buildings those are located in old fabrics, either they are a part of national heritage or not; either they are valuable or not. They look development plans as the most intimidating factors, and try to freeze the urban fabrics to reduce the speed of regeneration projects. The challenge and conflict of these two approaches have always resulted in bafflement and disorientation. Urban fabrics and its valuable assets are worth preserving, values such as cultural, historical, social, esthetical, architectural, etc. However urban fabrics are in need of new buildings and up-to-date infrastructures to be livable and suitable for today urban life. The past experiences show that our policies were unfair, illegitimate, cursory, impetuous, in-unbalances manner and economically motivated. In this article we shall attempt by reviewing the most influential developments in contemporary Iranian architecture and historic districts safeguarding, in order to show the side effects of these opposing approaches. It seems that the conflict of these two approaches has result in chaotic situation and disorder in valuable historic districts, and we should look for complementary approaches. New buildings and urban projects in historic settings should be development-dominated as well as conservation-dominated. They should commit their selves to the protection of the historical values, as well as looking for an encouraging and hopeful future. Conservation and development might play a complementary role in historic districts. For example, historic buildings have been helpful in many regeneration projects through adding cultural quality and place distinctiveness to schemes. From one hand, preserving the most valuable buildings in urban fabrics could be considered as a development stimulus. On the other hand, historic districts should be adapted for today needs and requirements. The heritage sector has become key in the promotion of the conservation-led regeneration or regeneration through conservation agenda. Conservation might take place as part of development processes that make conservationists deeply undesirable. This article briefly explores the history of the relationship between conservation and development in the case of valuable Iranian treasures.

The growing rate of Tehran’s extension has upset the initial figure of this city of Qajar period. Extension of the city and irregular layout of streets in quarters dating back to 100 years ago, were the first step to overcome the difficulties resulted from arrival of modernization, which itself created so difficulties because, its side effects suddenly changed the traditional structure and resulted to separation of historical fabric. Marvi canton is apart of odlajan canton and Odlajan canton is among the five different cantons of old Tehran. One it was the place of Tehran population concentration. Passing of time and for many changes in the structure and texture of the canton, there were some erosions in this canton. Such erosions together with unsuitable living conditions in this canton and classification of different residential parts and areas of Tehran created a kind of intercity and mandatory immigration which made native population such canton to immigrate to other parts of the city. In turn non- native and immigrant population replaced them with no interest and attach to maintain the historical and cultural identity of this canton. Examining problems and facilities of historical districts also the significance of spatial, functional and physical aspects, played important rales information of the theoretical framework of this research which was focoused on "marvi alley". The summing up of the studies, using the structuralism theory, led to the theoretical framework of this essay. This framework was applied for the rehabilitation, renovation & Reconstraction of "marvi alley of Tehran" in the following steps. Studing the facilities and problems and suggesting short, medium and large term solutions leading to formation of the main objectives. Presenting operational criteria to reach the main objectives. The above steps were examined and presented considering physical, functional, transpotational, visual, social and economic factors. Proposing different alternatives & evaluating them. Selecting the final optimum alternative. In this research, in addition to library studies, map studies and study of new and old study of new and old photos, field mapping was used and the results of comparing and analyzing the maps are provided in this essay. Due to the changes in marvi canton and other similar old canton we should search to find a suitable solution to maintain and hold the memories in such cantons, a solution which may improve the historical memories not to remove them and destruct the historical identity. As such, old fabric can be a serious threshold for the genesis of public record of the people who obtain their civil experience at places where they no longer reside. By re expression of their recollections in a new place, they can assist the creation of a new memory and endow the old city a new public record that has been formed in an specific place. We hope this research can help researchers and students and paves the way for special attention to other old quarters.

Zafar-Nameh (The Book of Victory) is a eulogistic prose text about life, battles and victories of Timur or Tamerlane as he is styled in the west. The first Zafar-Nameh compiled by Nizam al-din Shami by the order of Timur himself and the second one, which was written by Sharaf al-din Ali Yazdi owes its existence to grandson of Timur, Abul- Fath Ibrahim-Sultan ibn Shahrukh. Sharaf al-din Ali Yazdi, a noted prose stylist of the day, had been employed to turn the facts of the Persian and Chaghatay Turkish chronicles, kept daily during Timur life, into fine and laudatory Persian prose laced with exalted Arabic poetry. Sharaf al-din Ali Yazdi Zafar-Nameh is a revised and expanded edition of Nizam al-din Shami biography of Timur. One of the copies of Sharaf al-din text, enhanced with 24 fine and lavish pictures is the 935H/15 September 1528-4 September 1529 Zafar-Nameh in the Golestan Palace Library, Tehran, Iran, No 708. It has 750 pages (not folios), each page 37x23 centimeter and 19 lines of naste aliq. The terse colophon on the last folio does not mention the place of calligraphy but does indicates the date of its completion 935, calligraphy by Sultan Muhammad Nur, illumination by Mir Azod and paintings by Kamal al-din Bihzad. In this article, I discuss about the attribution of these 24 paintings to Bihzad and the possibility of his involvement in this exquisite manuscript from three different points of views. First of all, all 24 illustrations appear to be different in composition, color palette and fineness. They are of vastly differing quality which is reflected in the stylistic differences between them. One group consists of vigorous active composition and some represent unimaginative styles. This proves more than one painter must have been involved in illustrating of the Zafar-nameh manuscript. Therefore, even if we accept Bihzad participation in this project, he wouldn't be the only painter. Secondly, Bihzad was quite possibly already dead in 935/1528-29, and if not, would have been at least seventy-five years of age. He is not likely to have begun, let alone finished, illustrative program of possibly 24 paintings at such a late date. Thirdly, there is evidence that at much earlier age Bihzad entrusted much of his work to assistance and pupils. It may also be questioned whether the head of the royal Kitab-Khaneh in Tabriz, occupied for more than a decade with the production of the ShahNameh of Shah Tahmasp, would have taken time out to paint a fine but comparatively unambitious manuscript like the Zafar-Nameh. In conclusion, I suggest that Bihzad name on the colophon of Zafar-Nameh 935H/1528-29AD prove his involvement only as a director of different projects in the Royal Library of Tabriz. The scribe, Sultan Muhammad Nur who copied this manuscript in Heart mentioned just the director name and not all the painters who might have worked on this manuscript. For all the reasons mentioned, Bihzad direct participation is not only improbable but also impossible.

The extensive struggles that have been done in recent decades for improving the curriculum quality have also influenced the art education as well. The most preeminent ones which we can refer to are revising subject centered curriculum, emphasizing on social constructivism learning, integrating the subjects that were essentially separated (integration approach), and focusing on brilliant aesthetic capabilities, artistic production and learning in real life, that has been taken place recently, has an effective impact on reduction of the distance between art education and learning in the classroom. Art interferes many aspects of intelligence because it is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, and a source of different experience in the home, society and school environment for this reason, In art education curriculum, in one hand, all the mentioned areas, human industrial products, history traditions, daily events organizations, people, values, life styles and so on are used as a raw material (a secondary product), and in the other hand, art interferes individual in a process of reflection perception, imagination, construction, expression, information and communication, and interactively enriches the art student experience therefore, fine art education along with reading, writing and arithmetic is considered as a basis and one of the informational and visual literacy forms. This article will pay attention to art educational approaches such as art production, aesthetic and so on. Nowadays art is not only considered as serving subject matters and their concepts, but by an integrative organization in art classes, all activities and curriculum contents can be engaged in developing creativity, aesthetics and better relation between hand and mind. Imagine the real and subject matter concepts as materials and the art as tool that is used for working with those materials and concepts. Reproduction and representation of the lesson concepts (social, scientific, religious and studies) cause the art production. This artwork is a form of representative and a way for creation of art that is explicable through words and concepts and explains the realities. All things around us are sources of creation of art. There fore engage an individual thinker and observer in thoughtful, conceptual, imaginative, constructive, expressive, informative and communicative process. Picaso creates a representative form (real, conceptual, subjective) from real components; for example by using saddle and handlebar (objective),creatively engagement, developing idea and exploring characteristics of those two, he makes a live creature, like a bull subjective. One of the goals of art education is to help us think better about purposes and concepts that students learn on art and through art. So it causes us to change our ideas, and consequently, art education will change too. If searching is the base of new ideas that provide useful ideas, so art education can be changed positively. In educational fields of art university, psychology and educational science schools and teacher training colleges, two unites are provided about art education and the subjects of what is are education, why and how; and teachers as well as some graduated students from art schools are teaching art in educational levels. So this essay has been prepared to increase their awareness with art education and its new approaches.

A text is the set of lexical or visual signs that act as cues to guide a reader's mental decoding and meaning-making operations. The term "text" has evoked various meanings according to particular disciplinary perspectives. In cognitive psychology, it has been represented as the sum total of the author's propositions; in semiotics, as the set of lexical, or visual, signs that act as cues to guide the reader's mental decoding operations. This article explores how the meaning-expressive potential of the lexical and pictorial forms of signification are defined on multiple levels. Semiotics provides a theoretical and methodological framework for isolating and explaining the levels of meaning, both of language as text and the image as pictorial text. The object, sign production, and sign perception (interpreter) constitutes the basic unit of a semiotic communication model which clearly operationalizes the exchange and coding of information transactionally. In order to account for resemblance beyond visual representation, iconicity, or the extent to which a sign vehicle is similar to its denotatum, or referent, is a criterion for examination. A portrait of a person is to a considerable extent iconic, but it is not completely so since the painted canvas does not have the texture of the skin, or the capacities for speech and motion, which the person portrayed has. The motion picture is more iconic, but again not completely so. A semiotic rendering of pictorial aesthetics: Picasso's Guernica, we look at Pablo Picasso's Guernica, a masterwork on the Spanish civil war and arguably the last great political work of art produced in the twentieth century, we can address the questions and principles raised above regarding the semiotic analysis of pictorial texts. Just as lexical text is constituted of the sum of individual features that work to create meaning as a whole, the visual or pictorial text of Guernica is comprised of readily identifiable elements that create a meaningful integrated form of expression. Consequently, the relationships between the manifest properties of the colors, figure, and forms, comprising the visual text and disclosed at a point of ocular centration during the act of viewing, may also be analyzed syntactically and semantically. Guernica is an idiosyncratic portrayal of Picasso's disgust at the bombing of the town. It is also an invective against war. The ideological expression of this dissent is put forward thematically in the painting through the visual details that articulate a code of symbolic associations bringing together thought and action. It works on multiple levels of representation toward a disturbing depiction of the horrors of war. The painting reveals the continuity and discontinuity of life as it is permanently changed and interrupted by terrorist intervention. The overall presentation of images that comprise the painting, is quite dynamic. This article highlights some philosophical and theoretical implications of semiotics, language, meaning-making, and pictorial text with a view towards the development of a viable semiotic methodology for analyzing pictorial text. Pablo Picasso's Guernica is used as an example of how signification works on multiple levels.

The common terminological mistake about the equality of tragedy and Ta'ziye may also be seen in "character" and "similar". That is why the people present in a Ta'ziye show are regarded as the characters of that play, for example, they are referred to as the Imam Hossein character, Hor character, etc., while the term "Shabih" (lit. "similar") is based on an intellectual and philosophical basis. This basis forms a special structure and certain rules in the performance of Ta'ziye. Dealing with the characteristics of this word requires a scientific comparison between Character and similar. The scientific definition of character, according to psychologists like Freud and Jung, and the quality of the character development in the western drama reveal that this word has a semantic connotation which is based on details. On the other hand, Shabih is a word which is more holistic within the framework of Ta'ziye. In providing this difference, some other features such as the relationship between the issues of place and time, the opposition between the two words, Knowledge and ignorance about the future and some other issues may be traced. Character takes its roots in the dramatic literature in the material aspect of human being. That is why the gods residing in the Olympus mountain receive human characteristics when they interfere in humans activities. This way, the psychology of the person should be studied in the particular physical- social, psychological and cultural circumstances. Shabih (similar) which takes its roots from the Iranian narrative plays such as Maddahi, Parde Khani, Naghali and finally Ta'ziye; represents a general nature: good or evil. From an outer point of view, it does not coincide with reality. But thanks to the symbols and discourse features, it reflects the facts, and makes use of the signs in order to provide a real face of the good and the evil. It abstains from imitating the speech and the deeds of the characters of the play, in order to prove its independence from the characterr we have in mind. Therefore, it does not recnstruct the details of characterr speech or actions, but simulates his internal actions with poetic and musical signs and symbols. So it can be concluded that Shabih simply describe the events, and drives the sympathy of the audience to the good front, as well as driving the hatred of the audience to the evil group. The cause and effect relations in the realistic plays, as well as all the plays which claim a reflection of the external or internal realities of the person in his particular temporal and locative situations, follow the same real and tangible temporal and locative features. However, in Ta'ziye plays, the cause relations are functions of the cause and effect relations in a mental world, so the material worldly criteria can not represent them.

Among the many sources to explore virtues in contemporary and ancient cultures, there are the works about art and myths that belonging to this culture and era. Myth is mostly emphasis through mediums like poems or stories, carvings or drawings, etc; though not ordinary ones. This fact that can make myth similar to art works. In this article, our research focus on a poem in Pahlavi language called "Assurik Tree" which is thought to be the oldest one found in Iran. In "Assurik Tree", a tree (and very probably a palm tree) have tough that has quarrel with a goat, in which each of them boasts about himself and points out its characteristics and productions that should be taken as better. They also threaten each other in different ways. The threat and the boast both are much longer and more sophisticated for the goat side of the quarrel; a fact that can mean a sort of tendency from the poets toward the character of the goat in the story. So, it is not surprise to announce the victory for the goat in the end. But why and how is this victory expressed and understood? Is it just a piece of literature that dramatically brings its characters to life in order to let its readers enjoy or think or learn some lesson? Could there be other hidden parts, planned or developed among and for a certain group of people? Why does goat stands for what or who? And the same question about the tree. There have been a number of interpretations for the characters of the tree and the goat. To whom these two characters belong? Some have suggested that they are symbols of Iranians and Sumerians, the goat stands for Iranians and the tree for Sumerians. Some preferred Zoroastrians (the goat) against Pagans (the tree). Some others believe that there are symbols of two kind of living that are farming and photorealism. Here we have reanalyzed the elements in the poem that are or could be acceptable as a reason to the victory of the goat. Many of them are related to religion and spiritual life, including various Zoroastrian cults. Many of the goat's productions are either used by Ahura Mazda and its rituals, or used to provide a higher quality of life and even for luxury. While the products that the tree is boasting are mostly related to the human's basic needs and nothing more than that. From the side of religious perspective, the goat refers to some cultural elements such as musical instruments, costume, perfume, warlords, etc. There is also a list of mythical creatures and gods that mentioned by the goat that are partly common with Zoroastrian believes. The whole set of the elements that belong to character of the goat all seem cultural and spiritual factors, in comparison to the poor spiritual presentation of the tree, the main point that can explain is why the goat can be announced as the winner of the quarrel in the end.

The long-standing argument as to whether Western notation is a proper way of representing non-Western music remains an unresolved challenge for ethnomusicologists today. One suggested solution is that of employing the own approaches of the group or nation whose music is to be analyzed (see for instance Nettl 1983: 79); nonetheless, in spite of all the arguments, it is very rare to find ethnomusicological studies using this approach as their main analytical tool. This article aims to examine practically the methods developed by Persian musicians most of which are shared with approaches used in Arabic poetry and music for the representation of rhythm and how this system matches the notion of cyclicity of time. The engagement of time and music has long been one of the ways of describing and illustrating the complicated nature of the element of time itself in philosophy. The cyclic time versa linear time is an issue which has drowns the attention of many scholars. In this outlook, there is a sense of dividing different style of music or even music of different cultures with regard to cyclic and linear time. The notion of the cycle is a shared concept among Persian scholars for describing rhythmic patterns. Persian music theorists from Ibn Sina (Avicenna 974-1037) devoted their attention to the phenomenon of the cycle, which they used to describe both the primary parameters of music, rhythm and pitch. There are several methods in Persian scholarly works for the representation of rhythmic modes, some of which are oral and others are written. The oral way of showing rhythms in Persian music unlike poetry, of course has not been standardized and does not follow a set of broad rules, as exists in Indian music for example. The writing down of these rhythms has been developed by music scholars in various ways that in most cases share the principles of emphasizing the cyclic notion of time. Exploring cyclic representational systems of rhythm in Persian music, this article mainly deals with the analogy between the systems of presenting rhythm in old manuscripts of Iranian music and the notion of cyclicity of time in some recent works of scholars such as Joseph Needham, William Friedman, Zucker Kandl, Stanley Brain Hoffman, Olivier Lartillot and Mondher Ayari. This comparison shows that the fundamental concept of representation of cyclic time in recent works follow the same rules presented in treatises written by Iranian music theorists in more than seven hundred years ago. The most interesting analogy drawn in this article is between the representational systems used by Iranian theorists in manuscripts such as al-Adw?r and that of new approach presented by Jeff Pressing (1993). In this analogy the author shows how the helix introduced by Pressing is matched by dowr thaq? Awwal presented by Saf? al-din Urmaw?. This study shows that the principal of representing cyclic aspects of time offered by recent scholars follow the same rules as presented by Iranian music theorists in more than seven hundred years ago.

We use goods such as housing, clothing, food and music not only for comfort and survival but to make statements about ourselves our feelings, who we are and how we are similar to or different from other people. Some of sociologists, show how people use music and art to display social status which could be defined as a system of classify based on symbolic differences. They all suggest that cultural consumption and taste can be seen as symbolic communication and as a mean to establish social relationships, networks and status groups. It has also been argued that the symbolic communication or status is much more important in modern times and urban environments because of the frequency of superficial social contacts in these locations. This article studies music in its social context. Main goal of this article is to study musical consumption among people with different social statuses. Musical consumption in this article is a part of cultural consumption and writers study two types of musical consumption: Musical exclusion and musical tolerance which is defined as a behavior in consumption for people who limit themselves in their choices for all different kinds of music and for those people who does not restrict their choices in different kinds of music respectively. The distinguishing mechanism of status culture may be musical exclusion and musical tolerance. According to the mentioned details above, basic assumptions in this article can be considered as: 1) The relationship between social status and musical tolerance is a positive and significant relationship (Statistically). 2) The relationship between social status and musical exclusion is a negative and significant relationship (Statistically). To study these assumptions, firstly we have classified general kinds of music to six categories: 1) Persian classical music, 2) Persian popular music, 3) Western classical music, 4) Western popular music, 5) Persian local music, 6)World music. These 6 categories are divided into nineteen more detailed kinds in the next step. Secondly we have gathered data through survey method among two districts of Tehran (Ekhtiaryie and Javadyie) as two districts that show high and low status symbols. Sample size of this survey is 360 people that include people with the age range over fifteen years old. In addition to the survey method and the questionnaire, the library method was also used for determining some of the references concerning the relationships between social stratification and cultural consumption. We mainly focused on an argument in this field which is widely known as Omnivore- Univore argument. The Findings show that relationship between social status and musical tolerance is a positive and significant relationship (Statistically) and relationship between social status and musical tolerance is a negative and significant relationship (Statistically). If we divided the social statuses to three different low, medium and high levels, by comparing the average of these three different we can conclude that the average score of low level musical exclusion is higher than other levels, or comparison also proves that the average score of the high level musical tolerance is higher than the other levels.