CONFERENCE ON CARBON MARKET AND CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM IN PETROCHEMICAL AND ALLIED INDUST | Year:2009 | دوره:1 |Papers Count:35

GROWTH IN GLOBAL USE OF FOSSIL FUEL IN THE COMING DECADES WILL CERTAINLY RESULT IN EVER-INCREASING CONCENTRATIONS OF CO2 IN THE ATMOSPHERE. SO, UNLESS WE MAKE A DRAMATIC PARADIGM SHIFT IN HOW WE DEAL WITH CO2 EMISSIONS, NO NATION WILL ACHIEVE ANYTHING LIKE THE PREDICTED REDUCTIONS IN GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS.FOR GREEN HOUSE GASES (GHG) EMISSIONS, VARIOUS ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM MAKE IT WELL SUITED TO A MARKET-BASED APPROACH THAT CAN SPUR INNOVATION AMONG A WIDE VARIETY OF SOURCES AND SECTORS. THE EXPERIENCE WITH CARBON MARKETING SHOULD PROVIDE CONFIDENCE FOR COUNTRIES TO TAKE THE INITIATIVE. COUNTRIES CAN START WITH GHG EMISSIONS CONTROLS, GAIN EXPERIENCE, AND LEAD THE NEAR-TERM INNOVATION IN EMISSIONS CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES. OVER TIME, THIS MAY FACILITATE BROADER CONTROL AT A NATIONAL SCALE LIKE IN NATIONAL PETROCHEMICAL COMPANY (NPC) IN IRAN COMMENSURATE WITH THE REDUCTIONS REQUIRED IN GLOBAL EMISSIONS.THIS EFFORT WILL REQUIRE AN ORGANIZATION COMPLETELY FOCUSED ON ONE SINGLE, CLEARLY DEFINED DELIVERABLE REUSE OF CARBON DIOXIDE FOR THE PURPOSE OF CREATING ENERGY FOR AN ENERGY STARVED WORLD BUT, WITH ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY THE MOST SIGNIFICANT CHALLENGES OF THE 21ST CENTURY, THIS IS AN EFFORT WE CAN'T AFFORD NOT TO GET RIGHT.THE RESULTS OF THIS PAPER WILL NOT ONLY PROVIDE WITH A TRUE BASELINE, BUT SHOULD ALSO REVEAL WHAT PROCESSES ALONG EACH ENERGY SOURCE LIFE CYCLE GENERATE THE MOST CO2. THIS ARTICLES' DATA (GLOBAL, NATIONAL EMISSIONS) WILL ALLOW THE EFFICIENT ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES TO ADDRESS THOSE PROCESSES WITH THE GREATEST CARBON INTENSITY, THEREBY ACHIEVING THE LARGEST GREENHOUSE GAS REDUCTIONS IN THE SHORTEST AMOUNT OF TIME.FINALLY THE ARTICLE BY REPRESENTING SOME ADVANTAGES OF CO2 MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDS SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR CO2 REDUCTION IN THE PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES.

CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM PROJECTS AND SOLUTIONS FOR CREATING CARBON INCOMES ARE QUITE DIVERSE. THIS PAPER CONCENTRATES ON LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF BIOETHANOL AS A RENEWABLE AND ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY FUEL AND/OR FUEL ADDITIVE FROM FARM TO PRODUCTION PLANT TO GAS STATION (CAR FUEL TANK) AND FROM TANK TO WHEELS (EXHAUST). PRESENT STATUS, AS WELL AS, SHORT AND MID TERM FORECAST OF BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION IN IRAN IS REVIEWED AFTER A SHORT OVERVIEW ON THE GLOBAL SITUATION. A BRIEF DISCUSSION ON THE POTENTIALS OF IRAN FOR CREATING CARBON INCOME FROM BIOETHANOL LIFE CYCLE CONCLUDES THIS PAPER.

CARBON DIOXIDE PLAYS A GREAT ROLE IN THE GLOBAL WARMING AND, ON THE OTHER HAND, HUGE PART OF GHGS, GREEN HOUSE GASES, IS HUMAN MADE. THIS LEADS TO NECESSITY OF ESTABLISHING MORE CONTROL METHODS. BANDAR IMAM PETROCHEMICAL CO., ACCORDING TO THE ITS MISSION, HAVE BEEN PLANTED MANGROVE FORESTS, IN THE MAHSHAHR SWAMPS, DUE TO DECLINING GLOBAL WARMING EFFECTS OF CO2. DURING A PERIOD OF 10 YEARS, B.I.P.C HAS BEEN PLANTED ABOUT 6790515 MANGROVES. THE RESULTS SHOW THAT ABOUT 44033 TON CO2/YEAR HAS BEEN SEQUESTRATED.

AIR POLLUTION IS SIDE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITY. ONE THE IMPORTANT SOURCES OF AIR CONTAMINATE EMISSION AND GREEN HOUSE GAS IS OIL, GAS, PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES. WITHIN KIND OF CONTAMINATEDS HAVE BEEN EMITTED, ARE DIFFERENT IN QUANTITY AND QUALITY ASPECT. OIL & GAS EXPLORATION CONSIST OF MULTIPLE STEPS THAT EACH PART HAS SPECIAL CONTAMINANTS.ACCORDING TO AIR CONTAMINATIONS COME FROM THESE ACTIVITIES, WE CAN POINT ON PARTICLE MATTER, EVAPORATOR HYDROCARBONS, GLOBAL WARMING GAS AND ACIDIC GAS. FLARING HYDROCARBON VENTILATION AND EVAPORATION SULPHUR BURNING, ACID GAS, INCINERATORS, EXPLOSIVE ACTIVITIES AND EXCAVATING IS ONE OF IMPORTANT SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION.IMPACT OF CONTAMINATE EMISSION APPEARS GLOBAL EFFECTS (CLIMATE WARM UP) AND REGION EFFECTS (INFLUENCE ON BIOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT).

IN OLD AMMONIA PLANTS THE PURGE GAS OF SYNTHESIS LOOP AFTER RECOVERING OF AMMONIA CONTENT IN A FLASH DRUM ARE VENTED; WHEREAS, IN NEW AMMONIA PLANTS THERE ARE THE SUBUNITS TO RECOVER THE NH3 AND H2 CONTENT OF PURGE GAS AND THEN USE THE RETENTIVE GAS AS A FUEL IN FURNACES. THE INSTALLATION OF A PURGE GAS RECOVERY UNIT NOT ONLY WILL INCREASE AMMONIA PRODUCTION CAPACITY BUT ALSO IT WILL BE BENEFICIAL AND WILL SAVE CONSIDERABLE AMOUNT OF NG (AS A COMMON FUEL) AND DECREASES CO2 EMISSIONS COMPARE WITH OLDER AMMONIA PLANTS. HEREBY IN THIS ARTICLE, THE ADVANTAGES OF THE RETENTIVE GAS USING AS A FUEL GAS HAS BEEN CONSIDERED AND ECONOMICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS EARNING BY CO2 EMISSIONS REDUCTION ALSO HAS BEEN COMPUTED.

WHEN THE DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE OF THE SYNTHESIS REACTORS WERE INCREASED IN METHYL TERTIARY BUTYL ETHER PLANT, OR PLANT WERE STOPPED FOR MAINTENANCE REASONS, REACTORS WERE FILLED UP WITH METHANOL. THE METHANOL HAD TO BE BURN PIT IN THE START UP. WE HAVE RECOVERED AND RECYCLED THIS METHANOL BY FABRICATING A LINE BETWEEN THE REACTOR, UNUSED TANK AND ITS PUMP. THEREFORE, THERE IS A REDUCTION OF 137 TON/YEAR IN CO2 EMISSIONS TOGETHER WITH 100 TON/YEAR METHANOL SAVING.

BECAUSE OF HUGE AMOUNT OF WASTE WATERS WHICH IS PRODUCING IN TONDGOOYAN PETROCHEMICAL COMPLEX, A WASTE WATER TREATMENT UNIT INCLUDING AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC BIOLOGICAL UNIT AND INCINERATOR UNIT HAS BEEN INSTALLED.THREE ANAEROBIC REACTORS ARE RESPONSIBLE TO PRODUCE BIOGAS. IN THIS ARTICLE, THE FEASIBILITY STUDY OF INTRODUCING BIOGAS INTO THE INCINERATOR UNIT AND REPLACE IT AS FUEL GAS (NATURAL GAS) HAS BEEN EVALUATED. IN ORDER TO ABOVE DESCRIPTION, THE QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF PRODUCED BIOGAS HAS BEEN DEFINED AND BURNING PROCESS HAS BEEN DESIGNED. AFTER THAT BIOGAS PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS HAS BEEN CONSIDERED AND FINALLY SOME ECONOMICAL MATTERS LIKE NET AND GROSS BENEFITS HAVE BEEN BROUGHT.

GREENHOUSE GASES HAVE A DIRECT EFFECT ON THE PROCESS OF INCREASING GLOBAL WARMING AND THIS PHENOMENON TO CONSIDER DEVELOPING COUNTRIES GROWTH AND ALSO INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD HAS INCREASED VERY RAPIDLY THEREFORE PREVENTING OF INTRODUCING GASES SUCH AS CARBON DIOXIDE TO ATMOSPHERE CAN HELP REDUCE THE SPEED OF GLOBAL WARMING. MARUN PETROCHEMICAL COMPANY IS ONE OF THE CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCER IN PETZONE AND PRODUCTION CAPABILITY RATE AROUND (22 TON/HR) WHICH IS BY-PRODUCT OF ETHYLENE OXIDE PLANT. A LARGE VOLUME OF THIS GAS (18-20 TON/HR) IS TRANSFERRED TO FANAVARAN PETROCHEMICAL COMP. AND REMAIN GAS (~2 TON/HR) RELEASED TO ATMOSPHERE. SO, MARUN PETROCHEMICAL COMP. DECIDED TO REDUCE GAS DISPERSED BY CATCHING AND PURIFICATION FOR USE TO OTHER INDUSTRIES. IN ADDITION TO GAS PURIFICATION METHOD PERFORMED IN IMPLEMENTING THE PLANT, WE HAVE TRIED TO DETERMINED ECONOMIC PARAMETER SUCH ASECONOMIC ESTIMATES OF THE PROJECT, RETURN OF CAPITAL PROFITABLE AS PER KYOTO PROTOCOL AND FINALLY ITS PROFITABILITY BASED ON LOCALLY CONSUMERS.

CHEMICAL UTILIZATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE OBTAINED FROM LARGE SCALE STATIONARY SOURCES SUCH AS COAL, OIL AND NATURAL GAS INDUSTRIES IS ONE POSSIBLE PATHWAY TO DECREASE THE RATE OF CARBON EMISSIONS. CATALYSIS PLAYS A CRUCIAL ROLE IN THESE CARBON DIOXIDE UTILIZATION REACTIONS.IN THIS RESEARCH, THE SYNTHESIS OF A CLEAN FUEL SUCH AS, DIMETHYL ETHER (DME) VIA CO2 HYDROGENATION HAS BEEN INVESTIGATED ON BIFUNCTIONAL CATALYSTS COMPOSED OF CU-ZNO-AL2O3-ZRO2 AS HYDROGENATION COMPONENT AND NA-MORDENITE AS DEHYDRATION COMPONENT WITH DIFFERENT ZRO2 AND AL2O3 CONTENTS. THE SAMPLES WERE SYNTHESIZED BY CO-PRECIPITATING SEDIMENTATION AND CHARACTERIZED BY BET SURFACE AREA MEASUREMENTS AND X-RAY DIFFRACTION. RESULTS SHOW THAT BOTH ZRO2 AND AL2O3 HAVE SIMILAR EFFECT ON CONVERSION FOR ALL CATALYSTS, BUT AL2O3 PROFOUNDLY INCREASED SELECTIVITY OF THE DME. BESIDES, WHEN THE TOTAL CONTENTS OF AL2O3 AND ZRO2 WAS INCREASED ABOVE 16 WT%, THE CONVERSION AND SELECTIVITY TOWARD DME FORMATION WERE REMARKABLY DECREASED WHICH MAY BE RELATED TO LOWERING OF THE AMOUNT OF ACTIVE SITES OF COPPER ON HYBRID CATALYSTS.

IN THIS ARTICLE HAS POINTED TO SUMMATION OF ACTIVITY HAVE BEEN DONE IN BANDAR IMAM PETROCHEMICAL PRODUCTION UNIT FOR OPTIMIZATION OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION THAT IT IS RESULT REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSES GAS EMISSION ESPECIAL CARBON DIOXIDE. HOW ACTIVITY AND EFFECT OF PARAMETER HAVE BEEN CALCULATION. AFTER THAT PROJECTS HAVE BEEN DONE THAT IN ORDER THIS TARGET INTRODUCED. RESULTS OF THOSE HAVE SHOW MORE THAN 1.2 MILLION CARBON DIOXIDE REDUCED BY ENERGY OPTIMIZATION AND ENVIRONMENT PROJECTS HAT RELATED TO HOUSES GAS EMISSION IN BANDAR IMAM PETROCHEMICAL. IN END OF ARTICLE AVAILABLE OPPORTUNITIES OF CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM HAVE INTRODUCED AND IT IS ESTIMATED MORE TAN 500 THOUSAND TON CARBON DIOXIDE WILL BE REDUCED ENERGY BY DOING THOSE AND THIS COMPANY WILL BE ACHIEVE MORE THAN 4868 MILLION€ FROM CERTIFICATED OF CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM.

CONSIDERING THE DRAMATIC INCREASE OF GREENHOUSE GASES, ESPECIALLY CARBON DIOXIDE, REDUCTION OF THESE GASES SEEMS NECESSARY TO COMBAT GLOBAL WARMING. FOSSIL FUEL POWER PLANTS ARE ONE OF THE MAIN SOURCES OF CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION. IN THIS PAPER, TWO METHODS OF CO2 CAPTURE FROM NATURAL GAS POWER PLANTS (STEAM CYCLES AND COMBINED CYCLES) ARE MENTIONED, AND THE EFFECT OF THE CAPTURE SYSTEMS ON THE PERFORMANCE AND COSTS OF POWER PLANTS ARE ASSESSED. COMPARING THE RESULTS, NATURAL GAS COMBINED CYCLE (NGCC) WHICH USES AMINE SOLVENTS FOR CO2 CAPTURE IS MENTIONED AS THE BEST CHOICE. HOWEVER, CO2 CAPTURE IS A COST AND ENERGY CONSUMING PROCESS. THEREFORE, FOR COMPENSATING THESE ADDITIONAL COSTS CARBON DIOXIDE REVENUE OF ABOUT 40$/TON IS ESTIMATED WHICH CAN BE PROVIDED BY CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM (CDM).

IN THIS ARTICLE AT FIRST WE DISCUSS ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL WARNING KYOTO PROTOCOL AND CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM. THEN WE INTRODUCE IRAN PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY VERY SHORTLY. IN CONTINUE USEABLE METHODOLOGIES IN PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY DISCUSSED MORE. SPECIALLY RELATED TO ENERGY EFFICIENCY, RENEWABLE ENERGIES, N2O DECOMPOSITION, FUEL SWITCHING AND FLARE GAS RECOVERY. FINALLY WORLD REGISTERED CDM PROJECTS IN ABOVE FIELDS INTRODUCE STATISTICALLY.

ENERGY IS ESSENTIAL AND VITAL FOR DEVELOPMENT, AND THE GLOBAL ECONOMY LITERALLY RUNS ON ENERGY THE USE OF FOSSIL FUELS AS ENERGY IS NOW WIDELY ACCEPTED AS UNSUSTAINABLE DUE TO DEPLETING RESOURCES AND ALSO DUE TO THE ACCUMULATION OF GREENHOUSE GASES IN THE ENVIRONMENT. RENEWABLE AND CARBON NEUTRAL BIODIESEL ARE NECESSARY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY. BIODIESEL DEMAND IS CONSTANTLY INCREASING AS THE RESERVOIR OF FOSSIL FUEL ARE DEPLETING. UNFORTUNATELY BIODIESEL PRODUCED FROM OIL CROP, WASTE COOKING OIL AND ANIMAL FATS ARE NOT ABLE TO REPLACE FOSSIL FUEL. THE VIABILITY OF THE FIRST GENERATION BIOFUELS PRODUCTION IS HOWEVER QUESTIONABLE BECAUSE OF THE CONFLICT WITH FOOD SUPPLY. PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL USING MICROALGAE BIOMASS APPEARS TO BE A VIABLE ALTERNATIVE. THE OIL PRODUCTIVITY OF MANY MICROALGAE EXCEEDS THE BEST PRODUCING OIL CROPS. MICROALGAE ARE PHOTOSYNTHETIC MICROORGANISMS WHICH CONVERT SUNLIGHT, WATER AND CO2 TO SUGARS, FROM WHICH MACROMOLECULES, SUCH AS LIPIDS AND TRIACYLGLYCEROLS (TAGS) CAN BE OBTAINED. THESE TAGS ARE THE PROMISING AND SUSTAINABLE FEEDSTOCK FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION. MICROALGAL BIOREFINERY APPROACH CAN BE USED TO REDUCE THE COST OF MAKING MICROALGAL BIODIESEL. MICROALGAL-BASED CARBON SEQUESTRATION TECHNOLOGIES COVER THE COST OF CARBON CAPTURE AND SEQUESTRATION. IN THE PRESENT STUDY BIODIESEL PRODUCTION BY MICROALGAE OIL EXTRACTED AND ITS EFFECTS ON CO2 BIOMITIGATION IS INVESTIGATED. THE POSSIBILITY OF BIODIESEL PRODUCTION BY THE OIL PRODUCED FROMDUNALILLA SALINA AND R.ORYZAE IS ALSO DESCRIBED. THE PERCENTAGE CONVERSION OF REACTION WITH 1: 1 MOLAR RATIO SHOWED 58.74% OF FREE FATTY ACIDS TO METHYLESTER OR BIODIESEL. THE REACTION WITH EXTRA SOLVENT (ACETONE) AND EXTRA METHANOL WAS REPEATED AND THE CONVERSION OBTAINED WAS 71.97% AND 90.03% OF FREE FATTY ACIDS TO BIODIESEL.

THE INCREASE OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE DUE TO VAST UTILIZATION OF FOSSIL FUELS AND ITS SUBSEQUENT EFFECT, GLOBAL WARMING DUE TO ITS GREENHOUSE EFFECT, RESULTED IN WORLDWIDE CONCERNS. SEPARATION, TRANSPORTATION AND UTILIZATION OR STORAGE OF CO2 IS ONE WAY FOR REDUCTION OF ITS EMISSION; IN WHICH THE MOST COSTLY SECTION IS SEPARATION. DIFFERENT METHODS CAN BE USED FOR CO2 SEPARATION SUCH AS ABSORPTION, MEMBRANE SEPARATION, ADSORPTION AND HYDRATE FORMATION. NOWADAYS, ABSORPTION IS THE WORLD WIDE INDUSTRIAL SEPARATION METHOD; ALTHOUGH MEMBRANE SEPARATION AND ADSORPTION (PSA ONE) ARE OTHER LONG-TERM ALTERNATIVES THAT CAN INCREASE EFFICIENCY AND DECREASE COST.BECAUSE OF HIGH INVESTMENT COSTS, CURRENT SEPARATION TECHNOLOGIES ARE SUITABLE FOR HIGH CONCENTRATED SOURCES. IN THE PRESENT PAPER, DIFFERENT PROCESSES FOR CO2 SEPARATION ARE INVESTIGATED AND COMPARED WITH EACH OTHER AND AN AVAILABLE INDUSTRIAL PLANT AROUND THE WORLD IS REPORTED.

CARBON DIOXIDE REFORMING OF METHANE TO SYNTHESIS GAS HAS BEEN ATTRACTED DUE TO BOTH ENVIRONMENTAL AND INDUSTRIAL PERSPECTIVES. IN DRM, DIFFERENT ACTIEV METALS (NI, PT, RH, RE, RU, MO, IR AND CO) OVER VARIOUS SUPPORTS (AL2O3 , SIO2, LA2O3, MGO, ZRO2, TIO2 AND LA-HEXAALUMINATE) HAVE BEEN REPORTED. THE CURRENT PAPER TRYES TO ADDRESS THE POTENTIALS OF THESE CATALYSTS. IN MOST OF LITERATURE, NI HAS BEEN RECOMMENDED, DUE TO ITS HIGH ACTIVITY AND CO2/METHANE CONVERSION, AS WELL AS POTENTIAL INCENTIVES WITH ECONOMICAL BENEFITS. THE CATALYSTS LIKE NI/CE-ZRO2/Q -AL2O3, NI/G-AL2O3, NI/Q-AL2O3 AND NI/LA-HEXAALUMINATE HAVE BEEN ADDRESSED AS SUITABLE CANDIDATES IN DRM. THE IR CATALYST SHOWED POOR ACTIVITY AND SELECTIVITY. CO/MGO HAS PROVED TO BE A HIGHLY EFFICIENT AND STABLE CATALYST.

IN ORDER TO PREVENT RISKS SUCH AS FIRE AND EXPLOSION, THE FLARING SYSTEM ONE OF THE ESSENTIAL PARTS OF EACH REFINERY, BUT THE BURNING GASES IN FLARE, THE MAIN WAY TO WASTE ENERGY AND MAINLY PRODUCES THE HIGHEST ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS ARE ALSO REFINERIES. CONSEQUENTLY IN RECENT YEARS, MANY ACTIVITIES WITH THE AIM TO MINIMIZE A VOLUME FLARE GASES IN THE WORLD USING FLARE GAS RECOVERY SYSTEMS (FGRS) AS ARE. SO THIS SYSTEMS IS THE FIRST LIQUID IN FLOW OF FLARE GAS WITHIN KNOCK OUT DRUM SEPARATED AND THEN GASES COMPRESSED BY A COMPRESSOR OR EJECTOR, THEN ACCORDING TO THE RELEVANT UNIT OR STRUCTURE REFINERY, GASES AND LIQUIDS AS FOOD OR FUEL ARE USED. IN THIS ARTICLE, DIFFERENT OF FLARE GAS RECOVERY SYSTEMS AND PROBLEMS OF DESIGN HAS BEEN STUDIED.

THIS ARTICLE DESCRIBES THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF CAPTURING CO2, AS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT GREENHOUSE GASES, FROM FLUE GAS. IT MAY USE IN PETROCHEMICAL DOWNSTREAM INDUSTRIES, EOR OR ITS SEQUESTRATION IN UNDERGROUND LAYERS. THE QUANTITY OF CO2 BY-PRODUCT STREAMS IN MAHSHAHR AND ASSALUYE ZONES IS REVIEWED AND THE AMOUNT OF ECONOMICAL FACTORS SUCH AS INVESTMENT, OPERATING COSTS, REVENUE AND BENEFIT ARE CALCULATED.

THE AIM OF CONSTRUCTION THIS PLANT IS SEPARATION ETHAN & PROPAN FROM FUEL GAS PRODUCE IN NF PLANT OF BANDAR IMAM PETROCHEMICAL COMPLEX.THE FEED FOR THE PLANT SHALL BE THE TWO FUEL GAS STREAMS PRODUCED IN THE NF PLANTS (NF1 & NF2) OF BANDAR IMAM PETROCHEMICAL COMPLEX AND USE FOR OLEFIN PLANT. THUS AT FIRST SECTION USE FROM DE-ETHANIZE TOWER AND THEN THE OVERHEAD PRODUCT OF THIS TOWER SEPARATE TO ETHAN AND METHAN IN THE DE-METHANIZER TOWER.

THE UNDENIABLE EFFECT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON CHANGING CLIMATE, LEADS GLOBAL SOCIETY TO CONTROL THE HUGEST AND MOST DANGEROUS ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE OF THIS CENTURY. ACCORDING TO STATISTICS, TRANSPORTATION SECTOR IS RESPONSIBLE FOR 23% OF WORLD ENERGY RELATED GHGS EMISSION AND HAS A FASTER RATE THAN ANY OTHER ENERGY USING SECTOR (ESPECIALLY IN NON-OECD COUNTRIES).THE INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY PROJECTS THAT THE FUEL ECONOMY OF NEW LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLES COULD BE IMPROVED BY 50% BY 2030 USING COST EFFECTIVE TECHNOLOGIES. THERE ARE LOTS OF BENEFITS IN CO2 EMISSION REDUCTION OF THE IRANIAN TRANSPORTATION SECTOR. HOWEVER, THE RAISING TREND OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN SECTOR PRESENTS THE MUCH POTENTIALS. RESEARCHERS AND POLITICIANS BELIEVE THAT ONLY THE COMBINATION SOLUTIONS CAN LEAD US TO A SUCCESSFUL PLAN FOR GHGS EMISSION REDUCTION IN TRANSPORTATION SECTOR.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT IS NATURAL PHENOMENONS THAT INCREASE THE EARTH TEMPERATURE. CO2 EMISSION INCREASES TEMPERATURE AND CAUSE CLIMATE CHANGES. BECAUSE CO2 IS THE MAIN COMPONENT OF GREEN HOUSE GASES, THEREFORE USING FOSSIL FUELS CREATES DANGEROUS INFLUENCE ON CLIMATE. THE MAIN PART OF CO2 EMISSION COMES FROM POWER PLANTS AND INSTALLATIONS FOR CONTROLLING AND REMOVAL OF CO2 HELPS THEM TO DECREASE CO2 EFFECT. BIODIESEL IS IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT HAS MINIMUM OF CO2 POLLUTION. BETWEEN RAW MATERIALS THAT ARE REQUIRED TO PRODUCE OIL FOR BIODIESEL, MICROALGAE ARE IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT DOESN’T NEED CROPS LAND FOR GROWING. MICROALGAE IS A PHOTOSYNTHESIS WHICH USES CO2 AND PRODUCES O2. THESE ALGAE GROW AND PROVIDE REQUIRED OIL TO PRODUCE BIODIESEL.

CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND GEOLOGICAL STORAGE IS AN ENABLING TECHNOLOGY THAT WILL ALLOW THE CONTINUED USE WELL INTO THIS CENTURY OF FOSSIL FUELS, THEY ARE IMPORTANT FOR POWER GENERATION AND COMBUSTION IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES BECAUSE THEY ARE RELATIVELY ABUNDANT, CHEAP, AVAILABLE. BUT FOSSIL FUELS PRODUCE CO2 THAT IT IS HARMFUL FOR ENVIRONMENT. CO2 CAPTURE FROM COMBUSTION PROCESSES CAN BE ACHIEVED BY VARIOUS APPROACHES: POST-COMBUSTION CAPTURE, PRE-COMBUSTION CAPTURE, AND OXY-COMBUSTION. ALL THREE OF THESE PATHWAYS ARE UNDER INVESTIGATION. FOR LONG-TERM CO2 STORAGE, GEOLOGICAL MEDIA ARE MAINLY OIL AND GAS RESERVOIRS AND DEEP SALINE AQUIFERS THAT STORAGE OF GASES, INCLUDING CO2, IN THESE MEDIA HAS BEEN DEMONSTRATED ON A COMMERCIAL SCALE BY ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY OPERATIONS. THIS PAPER DISCUSSES THE CURRENT STATUS OF THE DEVELOPMENT AND BARRIERS OF CO2 CAPTURE AND STORAGE.

THE INCREASING RATE OF GREENERY GASES AND ITS EFFECT ON THE GLOBAL WARMING AND CONSEQUENTLY ITS DANGER FOR HUMAN LIFE IS ONE OF THE MOST STRESSFUL THOUGHTS FOR MANY OF COUNTRIES NOWADAYS.CARBON DIOXIDE THAT IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT GREENERY GASES IS PRODUCED MOSTLY FROM THE FOSSIL FUELS.MOST OF THE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES HAS AGREED AND SIGNED SOME PROTOCOLS TO DECREASE THE PRODUCED CARBON DIOXIDE AND SAVING THE HUMAN LIFE.HEATING ENERGY THAT HAS BEEN ONE OF THE MOST ESSENTIAL NEEDS OF HUMANS AND THE BASIC FACTOR IN INDUSTRY, IS MOSTLY PRODUCED FROM THE FOSSIL FUELS AND CONSEQUENTLY DELIVERS A LOT OF CARBON DIOXIDE TO ATMOSPHERE.

SUMMARY: DECREASE INEFINERY CAPACITY IN THE WORLD AND INCREASING THE ON CENTRATION OF GREENHOUSE GASES AND ITS EFFECTS AND ESPECIALLY THE GRADUAL HEATING OF ARTH, CAUSED THE WORLD TO IMPROVE THIS PHENOMENON AND TO TRANSFER ENERGY SYSTEMS FROM OSSILIZED RESOURCES TO RENEWABLE RESOURCES. IN ORDER TO REPLACE VEGETABLE OILS AS FUEL, THERE ARE THREE MAIN METHODS: PYROLIZE, MICROEMOLOTION, TRANSESTERIFICATION. CONSIDERING ECONOMICAL AND EASE OF PROCESS, TRANSESTERIFICATION IS THE BEST WAY. CATALYSTS SUCH AS ACIDIE, ALKALIC, ANZYMIC AND NANO CATALYSTS, PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN TRANSESTERIFICATION. RECOVERY AND REUSE OF NANO CATALYSTS IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN ECONOMY WHICH MAKES IT DIFFERANTFROM OTHER CATALYSTS. SOME OF BIODIESEL DEVELOPMENT RESOURCES ARE EDIBLE& NON-EDIBLE OILS, FOOD RESIDUE AND SEAWEED.BIODIESEL COMBUSTION REDUCES UNBURNT HYDROCARBORS 90 PERCENT AND AROMATIC HYDROCARBOURS TO 75-90 PERCENT. USING BIODIESEL REDUCES CANACERATING RISK TO 90 PERCENT. ALSO USING BIODIESEL IN ENGINES WITH DIRECT SCATTER WILL CAUSE A DECREASE OF CO AND INCREASE NOX.

NOW A DAYS, THE GLOBAL WARMING PHENOMENA DUE TO ACCUMULATION OF GREENHOUSE GASES SUCH AS CO2 BECOME A SERIOUS THREAT FOR HUMAN HEALTH AND THE PLANET EARTH. AT THIS TIME, IN ORDER TO DECREASE THE AMOUNT OF GREENHOUSE GASES, VARIOUS METHODS ARE SUGGESTED. ONE OF THOSE METHOD IS PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL. BIODIESEL IS AN ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLY PRODUCT WHICH CAN BE USED AS AN ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF ENERGY. IN THIS STUDY, SEVERAL METHODS OF BIODIESEL PRODUCTION (I.E. PYROLYSIS, MICROEMULSIFICATION AND TRANSESTERIFICATION) DESCRIBED BRIEFLY AND AFTER INTRODUCING DIFFERENT TRANSESTERIFICATION METHODS, (ALKALI AND ENZYMATIC) WE DISCUSS VARIOUS RESEARCHES AND ACHIEVEMENTS WHICH HAVE BEEN DONE IN ENZYMATIC BIODIESEL PRODUCTION.

SAFETY VALVES ARE THE MOST COMMON MEANS TO PROTECT MECHANICAL EQUIPMENTS AGAINST OVER PRESSURE. IN A DIFFERENT APPROACH INSTRUMENT DEVICES CAN BE USED FOR PROTECTION PURPOSE. THIS ESSAY INTRODUCES USING HIGH INTEGRITY PROTECTION SYSTEM (HIPS) AND AT THE END HIPS DESIGN FOR FLARE SYSTEM IN ABADAN REFINERY, PHASE 3 HAS BEEN STUDIED.BY IMPLEMENTING HIPS, FLARE HEADERS ARE GETTING SMALLER, PIPES AND VESSELS SIZES ARE REDUCED AND FLARE HEIGHT RESULTING FROM FLAMMABLE GAS RELIEF TO FLARE IS SHORTENED. THIS PLAN NOT ONLY MINIMIZES NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON NEIGHBORING EQUIPMENTS BUT ALSO PREVENTS WASTING CONSIDERABLE AMOUNTS OF HYDROCARBONS WHICH HAVE BEEN UNDERGONE DIFFERENT AND SOPHISTICATED PROCESSES AND ARE PRECIOUS SOURCES OF RICH CARBON. DECREASING EMISSIONS INCLUDING SOX AND NOX POLLUTANTS TO ATMOSPHERE AND REDUCING GREEN HOUSE EFFECTS ARE ALSO OF UNDENIABLE ADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM.

CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE & STORAGE IS ONE OF THE NEW APPROACHES FOR MITIGATING GLOBAL WARMING AND REDUCTION OF CO2 CONCENTRATION IN THE ATMOSPHERE. IT IS CONSISTING OF THE SEPARATION OF CO2 FROM INDUSTRIAL AND ENERGY-RELATED SOURCES, TRANSPORT TO A STORAGE LOCATION AND LONG-TERM ISOLATION FROM THE ATMOSPHERE. CO2 CAN BE STORED IN GEOLOGICAL FORMATION AND OCEAN BED.IN THIS STUDY, CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE POTENTIAL IN IRAN IS INVESTIGATED THROUGH SURVEY OF SEDIMENTARY BASINS WHICH INCLUDE HYDROCARBON RESOURCES AND SALINE FORMATIONS. APPROPRIATE BASINS ARE CHOSEN BY GIVEN CRITERIA. FURTHERMORE, THE CO2 STORAGE CAPACITY IN ENHANCED OIL AND GAS RECOVERY OPERATIONS AND SALINE AQUIFER IS ESTIMATED. THE RESULT INDICATES A GREAT POTENTIAL FOR CO2 STORAGE IN IRAN.

IRANIAN PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS ARE SOME OF THE MAIN SOURCES OF GREENHOUSE GASES EMISSION IN THIS COUNTRY. THOUSANDS TONS OF VENT GASES ARE BURNT IN THESE PLANTS AND ENORMOUS VOLUME OF CO2, SO2 AND NOX ARE PRODUCED BY FLARING SYSTEMS. RECOVERY OF FLARE GASES REDUCES THE AMOUNT OF AIR POLLUTION AND MAKES NEW SOURCES OF INCOME FOR THESE PLANTS.THIS PAPER SHOWS THE AMOUNT OF FLARE GASES IN NOURI PETROCHEMICAL COMPANY (NU.P.C) AND SUGGESTS A NEW METHOD FOR RECOVERY OF SOUR FLARE GASES. RECOVERY OF THESE SOUR GASES AVOIDS EMISSION OF 380 TON/HR CO2 IN THE ATMOSPHERE AND INCREASES THE REVENUE OF THIS COMPANY BY AT LEAST, 1.5 MILLION US$ ANNUALLY.

THE INCREASE OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE GLOBAL WARMING DUE TO ITS GREENHOUSE EFFECT RESULTED IN WORLDWIDE CONCERNS. ONE APPROACH TO REDUCE CARBON DIOXIDE EMMISSIONS IS TO CAPTURE AND RECYCLE IT THROUGH TRANSFORMATION INTO CHEMICALS USING C1 CHEMISTRY. DESPITE ITS GREAT INTEREST, THERE ARE DIFFICULTIES IN CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND ACTIVATION DUE TO THERMODYNAMIC STABILITY OF ITS MOLECULES RENDERING ITS CHEMICAL ACTIVITY LOW. CARBON DIOXIDE HAS BEEN ALREADY USED FOR PRODUCTION OF A LIMITED NUMBER OF CHEMICALS SUCH AS UREA IN PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES. IN METHANOL SYNTHESIS AND METHANE REFORMING ADDITION OF CO2 INTO THE FEED RESULTS IN ITS UTILIZATION AND INCREASES CARBON EFFICIENCY. IN OTHER CASES MODIFICATIONS IN CATALYSTS AND/ OR PROCESSES, OR EVEN DEVELOPMENT NEW CATALYSTS AND PROCESSES, ARE NECESSARY. TO ACHIEVE SUBSTANTIAL REDUCTION OF CO2 THROUGH ITS CHEMICAL FIXATION, ONLY REACTIONS FOR PRODUCTION OF BULK CHEMICALS SUCH AS METHANOL ARE RELEVANT.

AMONG OF 151 DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, CHINA, INDIA, SOUTH KOREA, BRAZIL AND MEXICO ARE THE MOST ACTIVE COUNTRIES WHICH CARRIED OUT SEVERAL PROJECTS TO APPLY CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM (CDM). TOTALLY, 500 CDM PROJECTS HAVE ISSUED CERTIFIED EMISSION REDUCTIONS TILL MAY 2009. ONLY FIVE PROJECTS OF THESE RELATED TO OIL AND GAS SECTOR. ALSO, IRAN WITH ONE PROJECT IN UPSTREAM AND ONE PROJECT IN RENEWABLE ENERGYLANDFILL IS PASSING REGISTRATION PROCESS. CONDUCTED RESEARCHES REVEAL THAT OIL PRICE HAS GREAT INFLUENCE ON GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) OF OIL PRODUCER DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. ALSO CLIMATE MITIGATION POLICIES AND COMMITMENTS FOR DEVELOPED COUNTRIES UNDER KYOTO PROTOCOL DECREASE REVENUES OF OPEC MEMBERS AS DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. HOWEVER, OPEC MEMBER OVERVIEW IS THAT ALONG WITH POSITIVE EFFECTS OF KYOTO PROTOCOL, DEVELOPED COUNTRIES SHOULD MINIMIZE THE NEGATIVE ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF KYOTO PROTOCOL ON ENERGY PRODUCER DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. BUT OPEC WORLD ENERGY MODEL (OWEM) REVEALS THAT EVEN UNDER KYOTO PROTOCOL CONDITIONS REVENUE OF OPEC MEMBERS WILL INCREASE. FURTHERMORE, BECAUSE OF REGISTRATION DIFFICULTY OF CDM PROJECTS IN RECENT YEARS, DEVELOPING COUNTRY LIKE IRAN, SHOULD REMOVE SOME BARRIER TO DETERMINATION OF OPPORTUNITIES, INTRODUCE AND IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECT UNDER CDM CONCEPTS.

WITH THE INCREASE OF GLOBAL WARMING IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT NEW OPTIONS FOR REDUCING CARBON DIOXIDE ARE DEVELOPING. THIS PAPER GATHERED VARIOUS DIRECT (ACTIVE) AND INDIRECT (PASSIVE) METHODS OF CO2 BIO-SEQUESTRATION. DIRECT (ACTIVE) WHICH ARE STRUCTURAL OR INTRACELLULAR CARBONATE DEPOSITIONS BY MICROBES. INDIRECT (PASSIVE) WAYS OF BIO-SEQUESTRATION OF CO2 ARE BY PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL MODIFICATION OF THE MEDIUM. THIS MODIFICATION COULD BE EITHER BY PROVIDING ALKALINITY OR CATION SOURCE OR EVEN INCREASING THE ACTIVE CONCENTRATION OF CATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT. ONE THE MAIN CHALLENGES OF CATION-CARBONATE PRECIPITATION IS TO FIND THE ADEQUATE CONCENTRATIONS OF CATION. SOME THE AVAILABLE INDUSTRIAL CATION SOURCES COULD BE DESALINATION INDUSTRY, STEEL INDUSTRY, GYPSUM, AND SOLVARY PROCESS. FINALLY, SUGGESTED APPLICATIONS OF COMBINING CO2 MINERALIZATION DURING WASTEWATER TREATMENT HAVE BEEN ADDRESSED.NITRIFICATION/DENITRIFICATION, SULPHUR REMOVAL (DESULPHURISATION) AND FERMENTATION/ METHANE AS SEQUENTIAL PROCESS COULD BE POTENTIAL OPTIONS FOR CO2 MINERALIZATION.

A SIMPLE MODEL FOR THE ESTIMATION OF CO2 EMISSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH OPERATION OF HEAT-INTEGRATED DISTILLATION SYSTEMS AS ENCOUNTERED IN REFINERIES IS INTRODUCED. THE CASE STUDY IS ISFEHAN REFINERY CRUDE OIL DISTILLATION UNIT. IN CONJUNCTION WITH A SHORTCUT DISTILLATION MODEL, THIS MODEL HAS BEEN USED TO OPTIMIZE THE PROCESS CONDITIONS OF AN EXISTING CRUDE OIL ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM TOWER TO ACHIEVE AT MINIMIZATION OF CO2 EMISSIONS. COLOM AND STAR PROGRAMS ARE USED TO CARRY OUT ENERGY AND CO2 OPTIMIZATION. SIMULATION RESULTS INDICATE THAT THE TOTAL CO2 EMISSIONS OF THE EXISTING CRUDE OIL UNIT CAN BE CUT DOWN BY 39%, ONLY BY CHANGING THE PROCESS CONDITIONS ACCORDINGLY, AND THAT THE GAIN IN THIS RESPECT CAN BE DOUBLED BY INTEGRATION OF A GAS TURBINE. IN ADDITION, EMISSIONS REDUCTION IS ACCOMPANIED BY SUBSTANTIAL PROFIT INCREASE DUE TO UTILITY SAVING WHEN THE GAS TURBINE IS INTEGRATED, THE INITIAL TOTAL HEAT LOAD OF 78.2 MW IN THE FURNACE, WHICH INCLUDES STRIPPING STEAM LOAD, IS DISTRIBUTED INTO TWO PARTS. THE GAS TURBINE PROVIDES 18.6 MW; THE FURNACE SUPPLIES THE REMAINING 59.6 MW. AS SHOWN IN RESULT, THE TOTAL CO2 OF THE REFINERY SITE REDUCES BY 8%, FOR THE OPTIMIZED UNIT INCLUDED A GAS TURBINE. IN TOTAL OPERATING COST, INCLUDING THE VALUE OF GENERATED POWER IS ABOUT SEVEN MILLIONS $/YEAR.

IRAN AS A DEVELOPING COUNTRY AND A MEMBER OF CLIMATE CHANGE CONVENTION CAN USE CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM (CDM) TOWARD ITS NATIONAL SECURITY AND ENVIRONMENT CONSERVATION.DUE TO CURRENT LOW EFFICIENT POWER GENERATION IN IRAN, THERE IS A LARGE POTENTIAL IN THIS SECTOR TO REDUCE ITS FOSSIL FUEL CONSUMPTION.COMBINED HEAT AND POWER (CHP) AND DISTRICT HEATING (DH) ARE EFFICIENT GENERATION AND CONSUMPTION OF ENERGY. IN THIS PAPER WE AIM AT ECONOMIC APPRAISAL OF MASHHAD POWER PLANT CHP/ DH WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON CDM. OUR RESULTS REVEALED THAT THIS PROJECT IS ECONOMICALLY SOUND. HOWEVER CERTIFIED EMISSION REDUCTION (CER) REVENUE (IN CDM FRAMEWORK) HAS A DRAMATIC EFFECT ON THIS PROJECT. WITHOUT THIS REVENUE, PROJECT NPV WILL REDUCE 91%.EVENTUALLY, WE SUGGEST THIS PROJECT IN CDM PROJECT AND WITH GOVERNMENT BUDGET FINANCING.

NOWADAYS VAST AMOUNT OF GREENHOUSE GAS (MAINLY CARBON DIOXIDE) ARE BEING SPREAD INTO THE ATMOSPHERE VIA BURNING OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS WITHIN FLARE GAS WHERE SOME OF THESE COMPOUNDS ARE VERY VALUABLE ECONOMICALLY SUCH AS ETHYLENE AND PROPYLENE.IN THIS PROJECT, BY APPLYING A FLARE GAS RECOVERY SYSTEM INCLUDING A MEMBRANE PROCESS UNIT, IT PROVIDES SEGREGATION FEASIBILITY OF THESE VALUABLE COMPOUNDS FROM FLARE GAS WITHIN OLEFIN PLANT. BY CONDUCTING THIS PROJECT UNDER CDM (CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM) PROJECT METHODOLOGY #0037, BESIDES ECONOMICAL BENEFITS AND CER (CERTIFIED EMISSION REDUCTION) ISSUED VIA UN, FLARE GAS BURNING AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION INTO ENVIRONMENT IS BEING PREVENTED.THE PROJECT MAIN BENEFITS, IN SHORT, ARE AS FOLLOWS:REDUCTION OF COMBUSTION EMISSIONS INCLUDING NOX, COX, SOXDECREASE OF FUEL GAS CONSUMPTIONREDUCTION OF FLARING LIGHT, NOISE, AND ODORDECREASE OF STEAM CONSUMPTIONEXTEND FLARE TIP LIFENO IMPACT ON EXISTING SAFETY SYSTEM CONCERNING RELIEF GAS EN ROUTE TO FLAREFEASIBILITY OF VALUABLE COMPOUNDS RECOVERY, I.E. ETHYLENE AND PROPYLENE, IN OLEFIN UNITIMPROVED PUBLIC RELATIONS & COMPANY IMAGE

ON DIFFICULTIES RELATED TO USE OF FOSSIL FUELS, USE OF CLEAN AND RENEWABLE SOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES IS PRESENTED. GASES FUELS SUCH AS SYNGAS ARE SUITABLE AS AN EFFICIENT AND CLEAN OPERATION. SYNGAS APPLICATIONS INCLUDE HEAT PRODUCTION AND GENERATION OF MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL POWER. AS FOR FLEXIBILITY OF GASIFIER TECHNOLOGY AND WITH APPROPRIATE DESIGN, THERE IS POTENTIAL TO USE OF FEEDSTOCKS SUCH AS BIOMASS WHICH IS A RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCE AND IN SPECIAL CASES WOULD HELP IN WASTE DISPOSAL PROBLEMS. KNOWLEDGE OF CHARACTERISTIC DATA OF DIFFERENT KIND OF GASIFIERS AND PROPER OPERATING CONDITIONS IS ESSENTIAL FOR GASIFIER SELECTION. THIS STUDY INVESTIGATES DIFFERENT KIND OF CONVENTIONAL GASIFIERS FOR BIOMASS GASIFICATION. WITH REGARD TO ADVANTAGES AND DEFICIENCIES OF EACH ONE BASED ON FEED PROPERTIES AND ITS EFFECT ON AMOUNT AND COMPOSITION OF SYNGAS, FLUIDIZED BED AND TWO STAGES GASIFIERS ARE BETTER CHOICES.

THE INCREASED LEVEL OF ATMOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE DUE TO THE EVER-INCREASING USE OF FOSSIL FUELS IN THE ENERGY SECTOR AND THE RESULTING GREENHOUSE EFFECT SIMULATED EXTENSIVE RESEARCH EFFORTS TO FIND ALTERNATIVE FUELS WITH LOWER EMISSIONS FROM RENEWABLE SOURCES. DIMETHYL ETHER AS A CLEAN FUEL AND INTERMEDIATE PRODUCT HAS RECEIVED GREAT ATTENTION IN RECENT YEARS. IT CAN BE MANUFACTURED FROM NATURAL GAS-DERIVED SYNGAS AS WELL AS RENEWABLE SOURCES SUCH AS CARBON DIOXIDE AND BIOMASS. ALTHOUGH DIMETHYL ETHER HAS A MODEST CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION FACTOR COMPARED TO CONVENTIONAL FUELS, IT COULD BE PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL REDUCTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE. RECYCLING AND CHEMICAL FIXATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE TO DIMETHYL ETHER THROUGH CAPTURE AND HYDROGENATION COULD BE CONSIDERED AS A METHOD TO REDUCE CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION. DIMETHYL ETHER ALSO IS A CONVENIENT FUEL IN FUEL CELL APPLICATIONS GIVING A HIGH-YIELD CONVERTION OF CHEMICAL TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY.