ZABANPAZHUHI (Iranian Journal of Language Research)
Year:2019 | Volume:11 | Issue:31 |Papers Count:11

Showing the narrative patterns of a work is an important step for expressing a network of elements of the narrative and structural connotation of the human mind. Narratives are one of the most popular genres in contemporary literary research. The existence of the element in the literature, philosophy, diaries, plays, etc. has long been the subject of interest among scholars of literature, sociology, and philosophy. Finally, by combining linguistics, literature, and other sciences, the need for the formation of a new discipline, called narration, was considered. The purpose of this study was to examine the way in which elements and components of a narrative were used to convey meaning. Of these narrative elements, time has a key role in narrative function. The term of time as the most important aspect of the narrative structure is the central element of the theory of Genetts. He discusses one of the most recent narratives about time, with three components of order, continuity and frequency. To understand the function of a literary work or a collection of works by a writer, narrative analysis based on the use of time is one of the researches that have been considered in recent decades. Narrative as a scientific method has been able to open a new place in the literary critique and literary attitudes and insights. The play as one of the triple Aristotelian genres is closely related to literature and is one of the oldest literary works of mankind, which with the use of narrative elements-as in the story-has special capacities in exploiting the components of validity. The validity of each play is indicative of its resources and infrastructure. Therefore, the elements of any screening, as the basic rules of each work, are studied and studied, with the proper understanding of its constructions and the way of communication They can better understand each other. In his works, especially in his plays, Kista Yasrebi has used various narrative capacities in various ways. The author has distinguished himself from the narrative of other writers in its clever use of translating the concepts of his literary works. The narrative capabilities of this literary-dramatic work reveal the author’ s artistic enjoyment of time-oriented techniques, using all the literary-narrative capacities of the element of time and with the precise application of narrative elements of the fit between concepts and transmissions. With the movements in the linear order of the play, the drama creates a desirable and fitting piece of art to achieve the specific timing of the “ play world” and, besides, makes the attraction and eloquence of the narrative while he triggers instilling a sense of suspense and expectation in the audience. This has led to the immortality of his dramatic work. Yasrebi has been writing in various literary and literary styles. In fact, he provides the reader with all his work using a style appropriate to what he intends to say. But often it talks about the world through surreal features that deal with emotions, mysteries, dreams and dreams, and sometimes the boundaries of reality and dreams are so obscure and intertwined that there are streaks of realism. The timing factor of narrative in his plays has an extraordinary role; in fact, in expanding the anecdotes, the beauty and strength of them, and the artistic presentation of his fictional reports. In his works, he has tried to search for people’ s life and their existential reality and create new themes for their simple happenings, often with bitter satire. This humor is generally associated with psychological analysis, which makes it different from others. In this research, using the analytical-documentary method, while demonstrating the postmodern components, the play has been examined based on Gareed’ s narrative theory. The “ wedding picture” of the novel, according to the theory of gentile narrative time, is considered to be a multiplicity of narrative. In this play, the natural and linear course of time is broken. The findings of the research show that in postmodernist plays, the techniques of past, present, future, and continuity have been highlighted at the service of the author’ s deep thoughts of psychology, in such a way that the seemingly distracting time of the play in the format of text events is a continuum with other narrative elements. From the point of view of the principles of play writing, the acceleration of the narrative of events and their frequency has made a direct and meaningful connection to the content of the plays. The structural unity of the elements of display is to convey the regular or irregular sequences of display events in the context of the time to reach the preinvoked action of the narrator, which, according to Genett’ s theory, moves from an unstable state to a stable state. Yasrebi has been able to use the conversation element as a constant acceleration. The frequency of conversation in the play creates approaches and plotting events with equal rhythm. Regarding the story space, the presence of dimming is seen from calendar or chronological times, and the writer, with his own work, bases its narrative time in the genre of fantasy stories. The narrator’ s position about the events of the story and his utilization of the timing of the narrative movement of the story by turning the speed of presentation is appealing and pleasant, and with the application of the retrospective method, the inner time of the couple’ s fifteen years of life is in the line of time now.

1. General IntroductionWahbi al-Tal whose pen name is Arar was born in 1899 in Irbid city in the north of Jordan, in a family involved in cultural activities. In that time, the Arab world was in cultural isolation and immersed in silence, pain, seclusion and backwardness. It was subordinate to the Ottoman Empire and on the verge of decline and demolition. His father was a educated Jordanian and Arar learned Turkish language which was the official language in education in that period. He was also familiar with Persian language which was taught at that time (al-Tal, 1957, p. 49). He got his title from Arar Ibn Amro Ibn sha'as al-Asdi who was a poet of the era of ignorance (Bekar, 1990, p. 31). Arar's poetry consists of themes such as love, attention to the women, win and drunkenness, being and nothingness, life and death, debauchery and pleasures, repentance, committed lyrics and resistance. Defamiliarization is one of the significant features of his poetry which has been employed in a variety of ways including the addition of rules, transgression in rhymes, elegant imagery, new combination, cohesion and harmony. 2. Theoretical FrameworkAddition of rules unlike deviation (from the norm) is not deviation from rules of language, but it is exercising additional rules on the rules of norm language. Addition of rules can be investigated and classified according to harmony in phonetic, lexical, grammatical, and analytical levels of phonetic harmony and lexical harmony. In this research, Mostafa Wahbi al-Tal’ s poetry that is one instance of the defamiliarization practices, would be analyzed and investigated. Besides the discussion about addition of rules, this article seeks to answer this question: How much addition of rules could make foregrounding in Arar’ s poetry and what is his goal of this literary approach? This research is based on the hypothesis that Arar has missed rhythms of prosody and phonetic harmony in some of the odes. 2-1 Review of the Literature Upon exploring the history of the study, no essays regarding the criticism of Arar’ s poetry were discovered; however, a number of essays about the poet himself have been found including: عَرار: شِعریَّه التَجرِبَه لا شِعریَّه الذاکِرَه “-” by Ibrahim Khalil,-“ Epistemological origins of Arar” by Ziyad Al-Zaabi,-“ The efforts of Arar, the great Jordanian poet, within the realm of Persian literature” by Bassam Ali Rababe'e,-“ The influences of the Sage of Neyshabur upon Arar, the great poet of Jordan” by Bassam Ali Rababe'e. اللُّغَه وَ الاُسلُوب فی شِعر عَرار“-” by Mahmoud Al-Sammarah,-And “ وجوووه وُّووصطُّر وهووالت و)عووت التوول یعوورارس بعروور ال ووص ال ووصبور ” by Behrooz Ghorbanzadeh. 2-2 The scope and focus of research The focus of this study is different from the aim of this research. The present study is a literary research on the addition of rules by the aforementioned poet. It is worth noting that findings of this research are gained through the examination of his poems (divan) called the Asyat Valley yabs. 3. Methodology This study investigates addition of rule practices based on the theories of formality in an analytical-descriptive method. 4. Discussion results Defamiliarization made by addition of rules and deviation cause foregrounding in Arar’ s poetry and this research achieved the following findings in this regard: 4-1 Phonetic and lexical harmonies are part of the most important features of addition of rules. Using these harmonies, the poet has done habit breaking in the field of addition of rules. Of course using deviation and addition of rules in Wahbi al-Tal’ s poetry were very effective on Arar and in this way, he has been able to bring foregrounding to his words in the eyes of audiences. 4-2 The element of repetition is one of the most important musical features of Arar’ s poetry which has made his poem’ s music twofolds and has given his poetry a certain coherence. Repetition has much frequency in his poem and appears in a variety forms such as phoneme, word and sentence repetitions. 4-3 Given the harmony between rhythm and content and between rhythm and words, the poet was keen on modernism in rhythm and deviation from poetic metres, and about transgression in rhymes. One can also point to enter pantastichs in his poem. 4-4 He uses the following sound and fricative continuity in his poetry to express feelings like vitality, happiness, complain, sadness, and transfer them to the audience, and these lead to the poem foregrounding and musicality. 4-5 Derivative pun has the highest frequency in Arar’ s poetry. 4-6 Breaking the syntactic or verbal rules and ignoring them along with combining words or vocabulary association is pleasing for him, in fact, the language he uses is literary. The audience will notice a new massage and Arar’ s speech causes defamiliarization. 5. General Conclusion Addition of rules is one of the significant features of Arar’ s poetry which can be observed in form of harmonies (phonetic, lexical and grammatical), deviations, innovation and revival in a number of rhythms of prosody, attention to coherence and harmony in poetry, and transgression in rhyme.

Tatic-type languages are among west Iranian languages divided into four main groups: northern Tatic, central Tatic, southern Tatic and Taleshi group (Stilo, 1981, p. 139). Among these languages, we focused on three southern Tatic languages namely Chali, Taleshi (Anbarani) and Vafsi. Theses Tatic languages present the most complex kind of split alignments and this phenomenon follows the universal tendency seen in tense/aspectual split ergative alignments in which the ergative alignment only appears in a specific tense/aspect generally past/perfect tense. In these Tatic languages, the oblique subject only appears in past transitive clauses where in there is no verbal agreement, but in other environments, the subject is direct and the verb agrees with direct subjects: In present tense sentences, the subject is direct and the verb shows full agreement with the subject. In contrast, in past tense sentences the subject of intransitive clause is direct and the verb shows full agreement with the direct subject. In transitive clauses, the subject bears marked case oblique and the agreement in the verb would be default 3s. In all three languages, a pronominal mobile clitic optionally cross-references the subject. The split ergative alignment of these Tatic languages is of potential theoretical interest mainly for two reasons. First: In one of the most influential views in the current literature on ergativity, ergative case is an inherent case (Nash, 1996, 2015; Woolford, 1997, 2006; Aldrige, 2004, 2008, 2012; Laka, 2006; Anand & Nevins, 2006; Legate, 2006, 2008, 2012; and Massam, 2006). On this view, ergative case is attributed to the lexical properties of the agentive v head and theta marks the subject, not to the subject’ s surface structural position or to the agreement with non-theta marking heads (Baker 2015, p. 54). In other words, the main assumption for considering ergative as a kind of inherent case is the relationship between agent theta role and ergative case and in languages that ergative is inherent case, we should see a close correspondence between agent theta role and ergative subjects and also the presence of active alignment. However, it does not seem right for Tatic languages since what thematic roles an NP has is not a primary determinant of its case in these languages; all past transitive subjects are marked oblique regardless of their theta roles and no active alignment can be seen in these languages. Additionally, the restrictedness of the appearance of ergative/oblique case in past transitive sentences suggests that it is a kind of structural case and should be accounted for by an structural case mechanism. Secondly, the split ergative alignment in these Tatic languages is different from other aspectual split alignments in spite of the fact that the restriction of ergative to past transitive clauses conforms to the well-known universal tendency in this regard. But in these languages, it is not aspect that conditions splitness. So generally, it can be argued that these Tatic languages cannot be classified as aspectual based ergative languages and none of the analytical studies (Laka, 2006; Coon & Preminger, 2014; Nash, 2015; Ura, 2006; Baker, 2015) which derive their analyses based on aspect can account for these Tatic languages. As it can be seen, none of the analyses proposed so far can be readily used for explaining split ergative alignment in these Tatic languages. Thus, the following questions and hypotheses are addressed here: 1-What is the source of Ergative case on past transitive subjects? 2-What is the source of direct case on present transitive subjects and intransitive ones? In an alternative view (Baker, 2015), ergative case is a structural case. Baker (2010, 2015) believes that the inherent view of ergative case has advantages for non-strict ergative languages like Hindi and Georgian and he tentatively accepts it for those languages; however, he argues that in stricter ergative languages, ergative is a structural case not an inherent one (see Baker 2015, p. 54 for more discussion). In this regard, he invokes the idea that in addition to the agreement-based theory of case (Agree), case can be assigned by a rule of dependent case assignment in the sense of Marantz (1991). He also invokes the possibility that one language may use a combination of case assigning mechanisms; that is to say, both Agree and Marantzian ones. We have adopted Baker’ s (2014) argument regarding the conditioning factor in splitness in Kurmanji and claim that the fundamental difference between clauses with past and present verb stems, which drives the split ergative pattern in these Tatic languages, is in the phrasal status of the v node. We claim that subject direct case is related to agreement on T in the familiar way, but oblique case on past transitive subjects is not related to agreement with a functional head and instead, we claim that the rule for oblique case assignment can be formalized in terms of a dependent rule.

In this study, the prosodic pattern of Ezafe construction has been investigated under the framework of prosodic phonology. Prosodic phonology is a framework which evinces that a purely phonological constituent structure lies between syntax and phrasal phonetics (Pierrehumbert & Beckman, 1988). While this phonological constituent structure is independent of the syntactic constituency, it is related to it by a module of the syntactic-prosodic constituency. Syntactic-prosodic constituency requires that the morpho-syntactic categories ought to be matched to phonological categories, regarding ALIGNMENT constraint which requires syntactic categories to be edge-aligned (right or left) with the head of phonological constituents (Selkirk, 2011). In this framework, heads are marked by their prominence by which it means that the most prominent element in a prosodic constituent is the phonological head of that constituent (Truckenbrodt, 1995). Those edge-aligned constituents make a hierarchical order in a strict manner with respect to each other, the strict layer hypothesis, in which a purely formal phonological mechanism specifies how constituents of the different prosodic levels form a prosodic hierarchy. In Persian, Kahnemuyipour (2003) investigated the prosodic structure of phonological constituents within the prosodic phonology framework. He proposed that within the phonological words, the right-most syllable, and within the phonological phrases, the left-most phonological word, and within the intonational phrases the right-most phonological phrase, and within the utterances, the left-most intonational phrase is merit of receiving the prominence and therefore should be regarded as the head of their phonological constituents. Since the Ezafe construction is a unique linguistic phenomenon which can only be found in Persian, a great deal of dispute in previous studies can be found about the prosodic structure of this construction. While a number of researchers like Eslami (2005), Bijankhan and Abolhasanizadeh (2011) and Mahjani (2003) only investigated the phonetic realization of Ezafe construction within the autosegmental-metrical phonology framework, within the prosodic phonology framework, Kahnemuyipour (2003) based on Ghomeshi (1996) takes the nouns and adjectives in an Ezafe construction, to be non-projecting base-generated X0 elements, and therefore, proposed that the entire Ezafe construction is mapped into a single phonological word. Although Kahnemuyipour’ s proposal was remarkably novel; he did not implement any laboratorial experiment to supporting his claim, but his own intuition furthermore, considering the whole Ezafe construction as a single complex word is not intertwined with Persian speaker’ s intuition. With this regard in this research, a laboratorial experiment is manipulated in order to figure out the prosodic level of the entire Ezafe construction within the prosodic phonology framework. In so doing, we arranged an articulatory experiment included three sentences which differed due to their Ezafe construction’ s length (from two to four words per each Ezafe construction) and we asked six men and six women of native Persian speaker to read aloud those sentences twice. 1) / nazar-e dɑ var hame ra ʃ eɡ eftzade kard / 2) / bɑ var-e barɑ dar-e ʔ ɑ zar besijar aʤ ib-o ɢ arib bud / 3) / xabar-e xɑ b-e bad-e bahɑ r dar hameje ʃ ahr piʧ id / We recorded their voices in a soundproof booth in the University of Tehran within the PRAAT environment and then after we extract the fundamental frequency of each stress bearing syllable within Ezafe construction. Since we assume that each ]+N[ element in Ezafe construction with its adjoined Ezafe vowel construct a clitic group which is itself an allatone of phonological phrase (Hekmati, 2016); now we want to find the place of Ezafe construction in the hierarchy of prosodic structure as a whole. The most probable option for the whole Ezafe construction would be an intonational phrase, because theoretically when we combine a number of phonological phrases we would expect to generate the next upper level of the prosodic hierarchy, intonational phrase. The phonetic counterpart of the intonational phrase is final lowering in which the fundamental frequency of the final stress bearing syllable is significantly lower than its previous counterparts (Pierrehumbert & Beckman, 1988). Comparing the fundamental frequency amount of the final stress bearing syllable of Ezafe construction with its non-final counterparts reveals that the fundamental frequency of the final stress bearing syllable of Ezafe construction is significantly lower than its counterparts (p<0. 001). Having a lower rate of F0 in the final stressed vowel of the last phonological phrase compare to F0s of the stressed syllables of all the phonological phrases of Ezafe construction in which peak delay causes the movement of F0 peak of stressed syllable to the following syllable led us to map the Ezafe construction as a whole to an intonational phrase. This analysis can explain the cause of auditory prominence of each element in the Ezafe domain. Each phonological phrase in Ezafe domain absorb the secondary stress and the final word in Ezafe domain absorb the primary stress as the intonational phrase.

By investigating the distribution of wh-word in single Wh-questions in Persian through a qualitative method in terms of the theory of Derivational Approach (Epstein et al., 1998) and Feature-Free Syntax (Boeckx, 2015) we intend to explain why wh-word is necessarily in situ. in some sentences and why its movement is optional in others. In this study, based on the distribution of wh-words, we put languages into two different categories: fixed wh-word and non-fixed wh-word. Languages like English and Japanese in which wh-word appears in just one place (either in situ. or non-in situ. ) are put in the first category, and languages like Persian in which wh-word appears in a variety of positions are put in the second category. By combining this classification with Scope-Marking (Pesetsky, 1987) (in which it is believed that each quantifier (such as wh-word) must have a scope) and Remerge (Zhang, 2004) (in which it is believed that the movement of α is not the process of “ copy+ merge+ delete” , but a simple remerge of α ), we suggest that converting a statement into a wh-question is related to conceptual-intentional systems and we can achieve it by resorting to merge, remerge and the related interpretation in conceptual-intentional systems without resorting to morphological features. Besides, we show that forming a wh-question is not the matter of being a wh-in situ. language or a non-wh-in situ. language, but is the matter of scope marking. By accepting the compulsory merger of wh-word in two positions in Persian, we naturally admit that the movement of wh-word is compulsory as well. Since if no remerge process happens, wh-word cannot extend its scope over the whole sentence, and as a result, no wh-question will be formed. Accordingly, we show that merger of wh-word in two positions is compulsory, just one of which must be pronounced, however: A. an in situ. position and B. the position in which the wh-word can scope mark the whole sentence. We, also discuss the factors which determine the pronunciation of one of those merged wh-words. By taking a look at Persian related data, we understand that each merged wh-word enjoys the same chance of being pronounced and if we just resort to articulatory-perceptual systems, then, we must make some arguments in favor of those wh-words which can be pronounced in both in-situ. and non-in-situ. positions. Meanwhile, if we put all these issues into discourse, the problem we face is those wh-words which are only pronounced in the in-situ. position. Accordingly, we resort to a mixed solution in which both articulator-perceptual systems and discourse related issues are observed. As a result, by reinterpreting the focus fronting as a triggering factor for pronunciation of the higher merged wh-word, we hold that, according to discourse, if an element which is not the already established “ matter of current concern” , becomes “ the matter of current concern” or becomes more relevant to the already established “ matter of current concern” ; then, the interpretation systems detect wh-word as a structure which is susceptible to focus fronting. This detection and interpretation sends instructions to externalization systems, and they accordingly, pronounce the highest remerged wh-word. As a result, we cannot take focus fronting as a triggering factor for remerge (or movement). This shows that the pronunciation of the highest merged wh-word is the result of the interaction between interpretation systems and externalization systems. Accordingly, we formalize “ the principle of pronouncing the highest wh-word” as follows: The principle of pronouncing the highest wh-word: In a language the Externalization Systems pronounce the highest wh-word, if; A) The language is a non-fixed wh-word, B) The interpretation systems detect the wh-word as a structure which is susceptible to focus fronting. ** In case B does not happen, wh-in situ. will be pronounced We also investigate into the structures with copulas in which a wh-word is adjacent to a copula and indicates that presence or absence of the copula with a whword can be a significant factor in pronouncing the highest merged wh-word. Accordingly, we formalize “ the revised principle of pronouncing the highest whword” as follows: The principle of pronouncing the highest wh-word alone: In a language the Externalization Systems pronounce the highest wh-word alone, if; A) The language is a non-fixed wh-word, B) The interpretation systems detect the wh-word as a structure which is susceptible to focus fronting, C) Wh-word is not the sister of copula. ** In case B or C does not happen, wh-in situ. will be pronounced. By resorting to the above-mentioned approach that is, by utilizing merge, remerge, the interpretation of the conceptual-intentional systems and the interaction between these systems and the externalization systems (articulatory-perceptual system), and without referring to morphological features, we can analyze the movement of wh-word as both optional and obligatory in a unified manner.

A narrative discourse is a discourse that is an account of events, usually in the past, that employs verbs of speech, motion, and action to describe a series of events that are contingent one on another, and that typically focuses on one or more performers of actions. Narrative discourse has been of intense interest to researchers. The ability to produce coherent discourse as an important component of child developmental knowledge during language acquisition is an essential part of language knowledge which child should acquire. The aims of the present research are to investigate the ability of monolingual Persian-speaking children in maintaining narrative coherence and also to compare the findings with other studies in order to acknowledge previous findings based on analysis of causal network. To this aim, thirty 5 to 6-year-old children (mean age= 5 years and 6 months), thirty 9 to10-year-old children (mean age= 9 years and 6 months) were selected among 100 children. Thirty 20-25 male adults (mean age=23 years and 8 months) participated in the study. All participants were typically developing children and had no learning disabilities or speech or hearing problems and were of the same socio-economic status and verbal intelligence. Moreover, children were also controlled for their productive and receptive language abilities and only those children with the same language abilities were selected. These groups were encouraged to narrate two picture story books namely “ Frog, Where are you? ” and “ Frog” . The first one is about a boy who loses his rabbit and is engaged in an adventure to find it. This story is a reliable tool to investigate narrative abilities of children. The second one (i. e. “ Frog” ) was used to control the content of the story. This story consisted of a series of complex events which enables the narrator to produce various connections between those events. Therefore, it is suitable for investigating how different events are connected to each other. The interviews were carried out individually with each participant and consisted of an initial warm-up conversation. The interviews were audio-taped and subsequently transcribed. Their stories were analyzed based on their length, the causal network which measured overtly and non-overtly marked causal statements, causal chain events and causal connections. The findings of the study showed a developmental progress in producing longer stories and achieving narrative coherence by means of establishing causal relations between narrative events. The findings of the study showed that adults were significantly more likely to use overtly marked causal statements than children did; however, the difference between nineyear-olds and five-year-olds was not significant. These findings also showed that adults were significantly more likely to use non-overt statements than children and nine-year-olds outperformed five-year-olds in this regard. With regard to discourse tendency, within each group, the participants used significantly more non-overtly marked causal statements than the overtly marked statements. With regard to the encoding of causal-chain events, the findings showed that both nine-year-olds and five-year-olds outperformed adults by having larger density in this regard and despite that, the age-related difference between the two groups of children was not significant. The findings also showed that adults and nine-year-olds were significantly more likely to encode causal connections than were five-year-olds. With regard to the pattern of causal connectedness, the findings revealed age-related differences for each type. For C0, five-year-olds were significantly more likely to employ them than nine-year-olds and adults. A reverse pattern was shown for C3+ events, which were encoded more by both adults and nine-year-olds than by the younger children. While C1 events were the dominant type used by five-year-olds, C2 events were preferred by nine-year-olds. Therefore, nine-year-olds and adults tended to encode events with higher causal connectedness. The results of the study indicated that compared with causal connectives, the causal network appears to be a more sensitive tool to reveal children’ s development in maintaining coherence. The results also showed that the system of causal network provides an alternative to quantitatively assess narrative coherence by covering all possible causal relations, which encompass overtly and non-overtly marked causal connectivity between adjacent and non-adjacent propositions. Since the narrative intelligence of participants was not controlled, it is suggested to control this variable in future research to obtain more accurate results. Researchers have pointed to the narrative intelligence as one of the cognitive determinants of narrative ability. They believe that factors related to intelligence play an important role in the development of the structure of narrative. Therefore, it is suggested to match participants in terms of narrative intelligence in order to obtain more reliable results.

Making “ definitions” , as a part of micro structure, is perhaps the chief function of a monolingual dictionary, which can be performed in various styles depending on the purpose of dictionary and its users’ perspectives. Apart from the theoretical aspect of definitions as an extensive catalogue of meanings in a language, they behold a more practical function which is sorting out the communicative needs of dictionary users. These needs are met in terms of “ decoding” or and “ encoding” of diction ary lemmas. One of the definition formulas in dictionary compiling is applying semantic relations, through which both decoding and encoding can be characterized. ...

1-Introduction Standard Persian is the major accent spoken in the capital city of Tehran while Esfahani accent is spoken in Esfahan, the third largest city in Iran after Tehran and Mashhad, which was once one of the largest cities in the world. It is located at the intersection of the two principal north-south and east-west routes that traverse Iran. Both Standard and Esfahani accents have the same underlying phonological structure. In the earlier verities of Persian including the Standard and Esfahani accents, the vowel /a/ used to occur word-finally which changed to /e/ through time. Moreover, the synchronic occurrence of this process in other word positions is productive in the Esfahani accent which is regarded its well-known feature. However, presently, the vowel /e/ optionally changes to ]a[ in the environment before the postposition “ râ ” in both accents, as well as in other environments in the pronunciation of middle-aged and older Esfahani speakers. It is worth mentioning that the word “ râ ” is the only postposition in Persian formal pronunciation of which is never used in the spoken style. According to Jam (2017), this postposition is pronounced ]ro[ after words ending with vowels and ]o[ when it occurs after words ending with consonants. That is because a preceding consonant triggers /r/ deletion. 2-Methodology This research aimed at introducing and analyzing this rule inversion within the framework of Optimality Theory (Prince & Smolensky, 1993/ 2004). Optimality theory is one of the most significant developments in generative grammar. The first detailed exposition of the theory appears in Prince and Smolensky’ s book(1993), entitled “ Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar” . Its goal is to explain the phonology of languages only by using a set of universal constraints. No phonological rule is being applied in its analyses because they generally explained the language-specific phenomena. In contrast, constraints in OT are not merely solutions to language-specific problems; they are claims about Universal Grammar (UG) seeking to explain phonological phenomena universally. Furthermore, there is no interaction between rules and constraints, i. e., OT is not a mixed theory. The principles of SPE phonology (Chomsky & Halle, 1968) namely rules and serial derivations between underlying representation (UR) and phonetic representation (PR) have been abandoned by OT; however, UR and PR which are renamed as input and output respectively, are being assumed in the classical sense. The optionality (also known as “ free variation” ) in the change of /e/ to ]a[ in the standard and Esfahani accents is analyzed using the free ranking approach which maps a single input onto two outputs. Optionality is a case in which a single input is mapped onto two grammatical outputs, although their distribution is not under grammatical control. The fact that variation is “ free” does not imply that it is totally unpredictable, but only that no grammatical principles govern the distribution of variants. Nevertheless, a wide range of extragrammatical factors may affect the choice of one variant over the other, including sociolinguistic variables (such as gender, age, and class), and performance variables (such as speech style and tempo). Extragrammatical variables affect the choice of occurrence of one output over another. 3-Conclusion The Change of /e/ to ]a[ in the environment before the postposition “ râ ” in both standard and Esfahani accents as well as in different environments in Esfahani accent is a clear instance of rule inversion in Vennemann’ s (1972) sense. Vennemann (1972, 1974) (cited in Hulst 1980) regards rule inversion as restructuring and as such as part of a complicated type of change involving restructuring, loss of the original rule and addition of the inverted rule. He distinguishes two subtypes of rule inversion, dependent on the motivation of the change. In some cases, inversion is the direct result of restructuring. In other cases, inversion is the result of reinterpretation of the alternation that is caused by the original rule. The primary reason for the occurrence of this phonological process, that is the change of /e/ to ]a[ in Esfahani accent in the pronunciation of middle-aged and older Esfahani speakers, is hypercorrection which is in turn due to comparing this accent with the standard accent for religious reasons, honor and reverence as well as the high prestige of the standard accent. This is true that coming up with an analysis for hypercorrection in OT is challenging; however, since /e/ optionally changes to ]a[ in certain generalizable environments in Esfahani accent, it is capable of being analyzed within OT using the free ranking approach.

In different languages, motion can be expressed through motion verbs that are encoded differently in different languages. The aim of this research is to compare the motion verbs in both Persian and English languages from the cognitive and typological perspectives based on the theoretical framework of Talmy (2000b) regarding the verb-framed and satellite-framed languages. He (Talmy, 2000b, p. 102) describes “ satellite as the grammatical category of any constituent other than a noun phrase or prepositional-phrase complement that is in a sister relation to the verb root” . It can be a bound affix or a free word. According to Talmy, the following can act as satellites in languages: “ 1-English verb particles, 2-German separable and inseparable verb prefixes, 3-Latin or Russian verb prefixes, 4-Chinese verb complements, 5-Lahu non head versatile verbs, 6-Caddo incorporated nouns, 6-Atsugewi polysynthetic affixes around the verb root. ” Levin (1993) classified the verbs in terms of motion, measure, avoid, color, communication, weather, etc. Ferez (2008) investigated the motion verbs in English and Spanish languages. This comparison showed similarities and differences between two languages. One of the similarities is that both languages have Path verbs. He also found that both languages have more Walking verbs than Running or Jumping verbs. One of the differences that was found was that path verb lexicon in Spanish is larger in size than English. In Iran, Azkia (2012) investigated motion in Persian language from the cognitive and typological approach. After collecting 435 motion verbs based on Talmy’ s definition of motion events from “ Sokhan” and “ Moin” dictionaries, she analyzed them based on congnitive and typological framework. She also analayzed them under lexicalization pattern. She found that in Persian language, 3 forms of satellites, namely “ Figure” , “ Path” and “ Ground” , can be located beside the verb. She also drew the following diagram, while mentioning it is just a hypothesis and extensive research should be done to confirm it (Azkia, 2012, p. 251): Figure > Path > Ground Afrashi and Hemmati (2016), Nateghi (2012), and Mesgar khoyi (2013 & 2016) have worked on motion verbs and motion events, too. Based on sorted corpus of Azkia (2012), 180; and a total of 360 motion verbs (Persian and English) were collected, checked and translated in the context of sentence using bilingual and monolingual dictionaries (Oxford, Aryanpur and Amid). Then, they were compared in terms of being verb-framed or satellite-framed, classification of semantic elements and the dominant satellite. Our research involved discussion and analysis of data collected about manner, path, ground and figure. We divided path into 5 parts in Persian that involved: 1. Satellite-framed specified path, in this kind of path, the path shows the exact path (e. g. so`ud kardan); 2-verb-framed specified path (e. g. afrā š tan); 3-verb-framed unspecified path (e. g. ā vardan); 4-satellite-framed unspecified path (e. g. tey kardan); and 5-satellite-verb-framed specified path (e. g. bar afrā š tan). Also, we divided path into 3 parts in English language that involved: 2. Satellite-framed specified path (e. g. come out); 2-verb-framed specified path (e. g. crash); and 3-verb-framed unspecified path (e. g. traverse). Manner in Persian language is divided into two parts: 3. In satellite-framed verbs (e. g. pilipili kardan); 2-in verb-framed verbs (e. g. š alidan). In English it has two forms too: 4. In satellite-framed verbs (e. g. overturn) and in verb-framed verbs (e. g. dance). Figure and ground can be found in Persian language in the form of satellite-framed: 5. Figure in verbs like “ š ā ne zadan” and ground in verbs like “ havā kardan” . In English, figure can be seen in verbs like “ weight lift” and “ iron” in the form of satellite-framed and verb-framed, respectively, and ground is seen in the form of verb-framed in a verb like “ fly” . The prefixes and co-verbs mentioned here are examples of satellites in Persian language: 1. bā z / bar (bā z gaš tan / bar gaš tan): back / opposite 2. boland (boland kardan): upward 3. xā rej (xā rej š odan): outside 4. dā xel (daxel š odan): inside 5. nazdik (nazdik š odan): near, front 6. vā red (vā red š odan): inside The results showed that the Persian language, unlike English tends to be more satellite-framed. Manner and path are the dominant satellites in the Persian and English, respectively. Finally, the semantic elements of Persian language are more satellite-framed than the English language. Each of these two languages has its own special classification toward Talmy’ s theory. We can draw the satellites hierarchical diagram in both languages as follows: Persian language: Manner > Specified Path > Unspecified Path > Figure > Ground English language: Specified Path > Manner / Figure

In this article, markedness is studied through the errors of one Persian Motor Transcortical and two Broca aphasias in production of simple and compound nouns comprising of “ N+N” , “ Adj+N” and “ N+verb stem” with regard to optimality theory of Prince and Smolensky (1993). The issue that language structures include two marked and unmarked values is called markedness. It is believed that the unmarked phones and structures are acquired before marked ones in language acquisition (Ulatowska, & Baker 1975; Jakobson, 1941). The markedness studies also show contrast between these groups of phonemes: voiceless and voiced consonants; liquids and non-liquids; back and front consonants; affricates versus stops and fricatives and oral versus nasal vowels. Since compounding is one of the most productive and common processes in Persian, it is necessary to study markedness in confrontation naming and repetition tasks of verbal and nonverbal compound nouns on the basis of phonological theories such as optimality theory to get some pieces of fresh evidence in order to reveal whether markedness theory is true or false. Using the clinical data also gives us an opportunity to get a clear picture from phonological processes in speech production of Persian native speakers and add richness to former theories. The main purpose of this article is to study the markedness by using the description of the common error patterns to get the necessary evidence to evaluate the markednesss theory of Jakobson (1972). The study of aphasics’ data tries to clarify whether markedness is extended as a general principle to language behavior of aphasic patients and whether aphasic patients’ errors in confrontation naming and repetition tasks are in agreement with Jakobson (1972) or not. The comparison of Persian aphasic patients’ competence and performance is another purpose used to clarify what is the explanation of optimality theory of Prince and Smolensky (1993) regarding markedness theory in Persian. One female and two male monolingual Persian-speaking aphasic patients participated in this study. Three normal men and women as a control group were matched to aphasic patients according to gender, age, educational degree, native language and handedness. Language stimuli of this study included 32 simple and 32 root (nonverbal) and synthetic (verbal) compound nouns. These nouns were the most frequent categories among different categories derived from PhD dissertations of Khabbaz (2007) and Ghonchepour (2014). Regarding frequency and length of stimuli, an effort was made to match the simple words to the compound nouns. To investigate the ability of patients to produce simple and compound nouns, picture confrontation naming and repetition tasks were designed and performed. 32 pictures of compound stimuli were intermixed with 32 pictures of simple nouns. The speech of patients was recorded while doing the tasks. In the repetition task, the same lexical stimuli pertaining to confrontation naming task were used and the patients were asked to repeat them after the examiner. Their performance was recorded and then, errors were classified and analyzed based on phonological patterns of common disorders. Errors and phonological processes in confrontation naming and repetition of simple and compound nouns are analyzed on the basis of final consonant deletion, cluster reduction, fronting, stopping and onset voiced obstruent consonant patterns. Data analysis shows that the errors of these patients are phonemic and the insertion process is not observed in any of error patterns. The deletion and reduction processes take place in final clusters of word syllables while voicing process mostly happens in onset clusters of words. In other words, the *COMPLEX (coda), *CODA, MAX-IO and UNIFORMITY constraints of markedness and faithfulness show that the unmarked CV syllable structures are the most optimal output structures which are represented via the deletion of final consonant or the reduction of coda cluster obstruent consonants. The domination of ONSET (-voiced) obstruent over IDENT ONSET (voice) and IDENT-IO (voice) reveals that voiced obstruent consonants of onsets are the unmarked phonemes in comparison with voiceless ones. This issue is in agreement with Fromkin (1970), Lecours and Lhermitte (1969), green (1969) and Blumstein (1979) and is against Berlin, Lowe-Bell, Cullen, Thompson and Loovis (1973) and Jakobson (1972). Coronal phonemes in comparison with dorsal phonemes and stops against fricatives are unmarked which are respectively shown through *DORSAL and *FRICATIVE markedness constraints proving markedness theory of Jakobson (1972). The findings also show that the Persian Broca and Motor Transcortical aphasias mostly use onset voiced obstruent consonants in place of voiceless ones which is contrary to Jakobson (1972) and indicates that voiceless stops are more vulnerable than their voiced pairs. The findings also reveal that high vowels are the most unmarked ones among vowels and patients use them in place of mid or low vowels.