PAZHOHESH-HA-YE BASTANSHENASI IRAN
Year:2022 | Volume:11 | Issue:31|Papers Count:15

In the earliest times stone tools were produced for the vital needs of hunting or gathering food resources for which the awareness of humans on the characteristics of different kinds and mineral capacities of stones raw materials played an important role in the production processes. Stone tools were produced, traded and used according to the different environmental Potential to different tradition from the lower Palaeolithic to the later times even human access to metal technology in the later pre-historic period, lithic technology did not lose its importance and efficiency. With the advent of urbanization and the development of complex societies, the structure of stone tools production systems has become more complex. In some areas, due to the local or regional availability of low-cost raw materials, the lithic technology has continued to expand widely even to the first millennium BC. At this time, the high demand in complex societies for the use of stone tools has led to the development of specialized lithic production systems. In the area of this study, a post-Palaeolithic stone tool production system in the south-east of the Caspian Sea has been investigated. This system deals with the massive settlement urbanization of Gohar Tepe to produce and supply lithic products at the regional level. In this study, 5 sites, namely Khanehsar 3, Rostamkola 1, Panj Berar, Bez khal, Kefal Lingeh, present surface dispersions of lithic material. The common characteristic of all lithic production bases is existence of large blades cores and long blades. Due to a high density of lithic scattered on an extensive area of about 10 ha, the Panj Berar area was selected for sampling of lithic artifacts. Flakes with centripetal negative removal, hereinafter referred to as Levallois-like flakes, by-products are a production process that can be misleading. This research examines how to create these flakes. Keywords: Post-Paleolithic, Lithic Production System, Chaîne Opératoire, Gohar Tepe, Panj-Berar Introduction The use of stone to create a tool for a specific purpose is not limited to the Paleolithic period. Its abundance, raw material quality, easy accessibility and low cost make it an efficient tool that has survived the oldest human technology even to the historic periods. In some cultural areas where high quality raw material resources are rich, used the stone tools from paleolithic to the post-paleolithic. But in what process, in what Chaîne Opératoire, and what remains are they left outside of archaeological settlements, is the question that this research seeks to answer. Procuration of raw material, reduction and initial cortex removal, preparation of a pebble or block in the form of core, are the preliminary stages of the Chaîne Opératoire. This generally occurs near sources of raw material, and what remains is a surface filled with lithics that contain signs of human activity. The problem that arises in dealing with such sites is how to distinguish between knapping methods in the Paleolithic and Post-Paleolithic periods. Especially if several centripetal negative removals were used to prepare the surface of a rock, there would simply be similar flakes to samples from the Paleolithic period (Levallois-like flakes). Such debitages, if obtained outside a settlement area and away from other Characteristic elements of any pre-historical period, will have a serious problem with their assignment to specific periods. This problem is particularly acute in areas where the volume of Paleolithic archaeological research is limited and there is no specific criteria for the technology and typology of Paleolithic and post-Paleolithic period tools. This study investigates this challenge in southeast Caspian Sea, which is one of the unknown cultural areas during the Paleolithic/post- Paleolithic periods and almost no specific criteria have been provided for the attribution of the stone artifacts found from this region. The purpose of this study was to recognize lithic production system around Gohar Tepe as one of the largest urban centers in the Bronze/Iron age, and identify and study the technology and typology of post-Paleolithic stone tools that scattering in southeast of the Caspian Sea. This recognition can explain the technological and typological differences and similarities between Paleolithic and Post-Paleolithic and create criteria for Post-Paleolithic industries in the southern Caspian Sea. To achieve research goals, area within 7 km radius for archaeological survey in the southern highlands of Gohar Tepe was selected.   Archaeological Survey According to the Iranian Archaeological Atlas, 13 Iron Age sites are located within the selected area that has been revisited in this survey. In this study, 5 sites, namely Khanehsar 3, Rostamkola1, Panj-Berar, Bezkhal, Kefal Lingeh, present surface dispersions of lithic material. The common characteristic of all lithic production bases is existence of large blades cores and long blades. Due to a high density of lithic scattered on an extensive area of about 10 ha, the Panj-Berar area was selected for sampling of lithic artifacts. Sampling procedure is limited to unit size of one meter sq. and through which 796 pieces of lithic were collected of which 23 pieces (2.88%) represent different types of cores, 341 pieces (42.83%) belong to all types of debitage, 247 pieces (31.03%) pertain to all types of tools and 185 pieces (23.24%) belong to the different types of debris respectively. In more than 90% of the cases, Behshahr chert raw materials were used in production cycles. Most cores are single platform and unidirectional blade core. 588 pieces of debitage (raw and tools) are considered to have been categorized into two main groups including flake 41/32% (243 pieces) and blade 58/67% (345 pieces) 183 pieces of total tools consist of blade and 64 pieces of flake are classified as types of retouched, notched, denticulated, baked, truncated, utilized and scraper. The most frequent type of tool in the Panj-Berar belonged to retouched blades (57.08%). Based on techno-typological analysis, a complete Chaîne Opératoire of production can be seen in Panj-Berar Base. The existence of cores, completely cortical flake, unutilized and unretouched flake, debris and tools with together show that process of producing the tools, from the early stages of remove cortical flake to making the primary blank and their retouching were processed in the Panj-Berar base. Reconstruction of Chaîne Opératoire of Panj-Berar Base lithic production turns out extensive activity, standardized and supervised with the specific purpose for blade production.   Conclusion Base on archaeological survey and techno-typological analysis of stone tools, Panj-Bberar probably is Base can be considered as part of a wider system of lithic production in the southeast of Caspian Sea. A relatively wide distribution of lithic manufacturing bases and the large volume of production activities in the area indicate the existence of a lithic production system that should be worked under the supervision of a larger society. Gohar Tepe as the largest urban settlement in the region can be a place to produce and utilize the stone tools supplied at these bases. According to the Ericsson classification, the system of lithic production in Panjabar and adjacent areas can be classified as irregular production systems with regional accessibility to raw material. Reconstruction of the Chaîne Opératoire at the Panjberar base, has been determined using centripetal debitage for initian cortex removal of large block/pebble. This method unconsciously results in the production of Levallois-like flakes. The presence of Levallois-like flakes alongside the large blades cores, Long blades, red and gray polished and burnished pottery belong to bronze/iron age can help us measure these tools in the post-Palaeolithic.

The Elymais, as a semi-autonomous and sometimes autonomous satrap, had a special place in southwestern, western, and southern Iran at the same time as the Seleucids and Parthians. This rule has played an active political and economic presence in the region from the middle of the second century BC until the rise of the Sassanid Empire, simultaneously with the Seleucid and Parthian rule. Most of the Parthian monuments are located in the Elymais geographical region and many of the traditions that were manifested during the Sassanid period have been the main achievements of Elymais culture. Despite the wide range of artifacts identified during this period, many aspects of the Elymais rule are still unknown. Coins as useful and index data in archaeology, due to their durability and frequency, by studying motifs and texts, provide valuable information about different periods. In addition, the use of laboratory science on these findings provides useful supplementary information for researchers. In this article, a collection of bronze and silver coins belonging to the Elymais period were studied by the PIXE method, in order to answer the questions about the concentration or purity, the number of mines, the number of mints on these coins, and the appearance of these compounds in understanding the economic and political structure of the period. To achieve these purposes, 35 coins from the Elymais were analyzed. These coins ranged from 85 BC to the early third century AD. The results showed that the analyzed coins were minted in six mints (two mints used in each of the three periods) and their raw material was different from the three mines. On the other hand, the ratio of the percentage of the main elements of coins in the three Elymais periods are different and the decreasing trend of silver and copper percentages and the increasing trend of lead percentage in the analyzed coins indicate a better coin minting situation in the first Elymais period than the second and third periods, and the better political and economic situation of the kings of this period; In addition, the domination of the Elymais over Susa had a direct effect on the purity and better quality of their coins.Keywords: Coin, Elemental Analysis, PIXE, Political and Economic Situation, Elymais. IntroductionThe Elymais rule in the mountainous region of Bakhtiyari and the low and alluvial land of Khuzestan was present at the same time as the Seleucids and the Parthians and played a significant role in the historical events of the region. Elymais is the main place of Parthian art and has played a special role in the formation and development of various cultural aspects and their transfer to the Sassanid era. Historical documents state the names of various areas, cities, and temples in the Elymais realm, and archaeological studies have identified more traces of the rule. However, understanding the Elymais rule is still in its infancy. In the historical documents of the late third century BC, the Elymais are mentioned, but the founder of this rule was, in fact, Kamnaskires the First (140-160BC), and the Elymais rule had an active presence in the events of this region until the beginning of the Sassanid Empire. The name “Elymais” in Greek is the same as the name “Elam” in the Semitic language, which has been used interchangeably in various Babylonian inscriptions. Various divisions have been mentioned about the period of the Elymais rule and the order in which its kings came to power, which indicates the lack of primary and key information in this period. Study resources to identify the Elymais are archaeological data, historical documents, and interdisciplinary sciences. At present, based on the coins of this period, as a finding with a significant quantity and comparison with other data, a more accurate sequence of the rule of the Elymais kings can be identified. Accordingly, the Elymais rule after the coming to power of Kamnaskires can be divided into three periods: The Kamnaskires dynasty (160/140BC-AD25), the Parthian dynasty (AD25-150), and the reign of the last Elymais kings (AD150-221). On the other hand, among the interdisciplinary sciences used in archaeology is archaeometry, which is used to identify elemental compositions and origin-finding, reconstruct and study on technology, regional and extra-regional trade, the political and economic situation of ancient societies, and date objects and sites. In this article, we try to deal with the elemental analysis of 35 coins of the Elymais kings by the PIXE method, and to answer the question of how the percentage of elements in coins can help us identify the number of mines, mints, and the analysis of political and economic situation of the Elymais rule. DiscussionIn this study, 2 silver coins and 33 copper coins belonging to different Elymais kings were elementally analyzed by PIXE method in the “Vandograph” laboratory of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran. The oldest coins analyzed in this study belong to Kamnaskires IV and Queen Anzazeh, and the newest coins analyzed belong to the seventh unknown king. The coins before the analysis were classified into two categories, silver and copper, but after the analysis, the coins in which the silver was more than 50% were classified as silver coins, those with 3 to 49.9 percent silver were classified as Bilon coins, and those with less than 3 percent silver were classified as copper coins. By analyzing these 33 copper coins, it was determined 8 Bilons and 25 copper coins (2 silver coins, 2 copper coins, 5 Bilon coins related to the first period, 11 copper coins and 3 Bilon coins related to the second period and 12 copper coins related to the third period). It is not possible to say with certainty whether the Bilon coins were more valuable than other copper coins, or whether the Bilon coin was a special style of coinage by the Elymais, but among the analyzed coins, especially in the first period, there is the minting of Bilon coins. Since the percentage of copper to lead in these coins is different and this can confirm different mints, it may be possible to suggest the generality of this style of coinage (Bilon) for the Elymais. During the Parthian dynasty, this style of coinage (Bilon) was not seen, and during the time of Kamnaskires Orod the first, which completely reunited Susa and Elymais, the Bilon was seen again. ConclusionBased on elemental analysis, the decreasing trend of silver and copper percentages and the increasing trend of lead percentage in the analyzed coins indicate a better situation of coinage in the first Elymais period than the second and third periods and better political and economic situation of the kings of this period. According to the percentage of copper to lead, it can be stated that the coins were minted in six different mints and two mints were active in all three time periods. Considering the percentage of calcium in the coins, we can mention the use of three different mines to extract ore to produce these Elymais coins. The increase in lead in silver and Bilon coins confirms the changes over three periods, and this increase has been due to the reduction of available copper mines or the need for rapid coinage or re-smelting. It seems that the presence of the Parthians in the Elymais region was as an external factor that created a gap between the Elymais bases in the highlands and low plains of Khuzestan (especially Susa) in access to resources and their integration and caused a decrease in the purity of coins. When these two regions were under the control of the Elymais rule, they could have mastered the capabilities of the highlands and low plains and used them, which has been reflected well in the results of the coin analysis.

Valuable monuments has remained from the historical and Islamic period in the South West of Lorestan Province. Despite the importance some of these monuments and theirs registration in the List of National Monuments, Have not been performed proper research about them and there is not enough knowledge about them. One of these monuments is the building known as “Tappe Zagheh” in the center of “Rumishgan” plain. Despite doing archaeological studies in Rumishgan and visiting foreign and Iranian archaeologists from the Tappe Zagheh, our knowledge about this building limited to its position. Although previous reports have made some hypotheses on the date of construction and function of this mansion but the exact date of construction and the actual operation still is unknown. Therefore, it is necessary this building will be studied in an independent study and comprehensive manner and recognized its historical period of construction and actual functioning. The main research questions are: 1- What period was built the mansion known as Tappe Zagheh in Rumishgan plain? 2- What was the function of the Tappe Zagheh?  The research approach is historical and the findings are gathered with documentary and field studies.The results of the research show that Tappe Zagheh was a caravanserai between historical city of Saimarreh and Tarhān region. Architectural element, Materials used in construction of the building and scattered ceramics around Tappe Zagheh show that it was built in late Sassanian period and it was used until the Middle Ages of Islamic period. Keywords: Sassanid Architecture, Early Islamic Centuries, Dormitory Monument, Tappe Zaghe, Rumishgan.   Introduction The stone monument known as Tappe Zagheh is located in center of Rumishgan plain in southwestern of Luristan province. Rumishgan plain had been part of the historical region of Tarhān which had an important and strategic communication position in western Iran during the Sassanid and Islamic periods. According to the written documents and archaeological findings Tarhān had been hosting the important regional and inter-regional connection road since the late Sassanid period which lasted to Islamic period. The archaeological evidences of this connection road further than the historical bridges (Cham-e Nemeshet and See-e Pallah), are the stone paved roads which are remained in some regions around the Rumishgan plain (Mirorah in the south and Gowerbani in the north of the plain). This appropriate connecting position has resulted in the construction of various buildings such as bridges, guarding forts, caravanserais and stone paved roads among which is Teppe Zaghe the most prominent of them. Although many scholars that passed through Rumishgan mentioned to Teppe Zaghe in their reports but our knowledge about Tappe Zagheh from this reports limited to significant and its location. Despite the long history of the listing of the Tappe Zagheh in the Iran National list of Cultural Heritage, no remarkable study regarding the date of its building and its function had been conducted. This is while the building has significant architectural and historical importance and its existence is being threatened by the urban development plans every day; so that further to its visual zone a large part of the building has been disturbed and is damaging more day by day. In this regard a thorough and detailed study of Teppe Zagheh will be of great importance. What is mainly was unknown about Tappe Zagheh is function and chronology of its building which are the main research concerns of the present study. The research approach is historical and its information has been collected through library studies and field research. In present situation, because of the lack of data from archaeological excavations, the architectural style and the ceramics findings from the surface and arena determination soundings and their comparative studies with the known examples will provide a good key to propose chronology for the building.   Identified Traces Although the architectural features and elements of the Zagheh building such as crescent vaults as well as stone and plaster groins are representative of Sassanid characteristics, but authors don’t have reliable evidences to attribute the building to the Sassanid period. Of course, at present, the existence of a construction from Sassanid period could not be definitely denied. It is probable that the Sassanid architectural remains be buried under the following period ruins or repairing, access to which is not possible without archaeological excavations. In contrast the abundance and variety of the ceramics of the early Islamic period on the surface and around the building, are definite evidences of the reconstruction of the building and use it during this period. Therefore a period of time from the late Sassanid era early Islamic centuries is proposed for the construction of this building. According to location of Teppe Zagheh in the center of Rumishgan plain and its pattern construction the best function proposed for it is caravanserai or a road station. The small scale, the closed plan with a central yard, the absence of attaching buildings and facilities around the building and the lack of decoration such as stuccos in it all are attesting the building served as a road station. The existence of the stable and a gate probably was guarding by a guard room, are the next evidences which are attesting that the building was a caravanserai. The large number of ceramics such as pot with small mouths which are proper to restore liquids, open mouth jars suitable to restore crops, plates and bowls among the potteries are all representative of the function of the building to serve a considerable group of people which normally settled in this caravanserai which reinforces the assumption that the building was a caravanserai.   Conclusion Archaeological data, architectural features of the building, construction pattern of the building at the center of the Rumishgan plain and western Iran, the temporal affinity and geographical continuity of the building with other works of the region are the reasons which the preset study based on attributed the Teppe Zaghe to be a caravanserai in the connection road of Saimarreh to Tarhān. The characteristic such as the small scale of the building, central courtyard, the absence of the decorated elements and lacking of the building and joining constructions around it are all the elements that show Tappe Zagheh is a caravanserai. The mountainous position of the building and its far distance from the urban centers, and its position on the road connecting Tarhān to Saimarreh and the existence of stable at its southern part are the next evidences representing that the structure was one of the road stations on the connecting way from the historical city of Saimarreh to Tarhān. Regarding the date of the building the architectural element such as crescent arches, with stone and pilaster groins demonstrate the Sassanid characteristics. According to the existing evidences the present study proposes a pried of time from late Sassanid era to early Islamic centuries for chronology of this building. It is noteworthy that this stage of study and in the lack of information from archaeological excavations, makes it impossible to propose a more precise date for the building. Therefore, what was proposed here was based on the evidences and material from surface survey of the site. Archaeological excavations could have confirm proposed chronology.

Kathah is one of the settlement centers that together with Meybod, Naein and Fahraj formed the four important cities of Yazd region. According to the local texts, its creation is considered to be related to the pre-Islamic period, which was built by Alexander and did not exist in the Islamic period; nevertheless, geographical texts mention it as one of the cities of the Islamic period. This article aims to study the name of the city of Kathah and with an analytical-historical-descriptive method seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What is the position of the city of Kathah in the sources? 2. Considering the geographical features of Yazd-Ardakan plain and its adaptation to the descriptions of the texts, which of the settlement centers in this plain can be matched with Kathah? Local texts consider Kathah to be one of Alexander’s compositions, where he imprisoned some of the captives taken during the battle with Darius III. After the construction of Yazd, this city was abandoned and the residents migrated to this city. However, geographers consider it as one of the settlement centers of the Yazd region in the Islamic period, which shows the contradiction between their statements and the local texts of Yazd. The results of this study show that Muslim geographers have used the word Kathah to refer to one of its settlement centers according to the geographical features of Yazd region. By matching their descriptions with the geographical features of Yazd-Ardakan plain, Rustaq Dehestan can be suggested; because this Dehestan was composed of several villages from the very beginning, and this process continues to this day. This Dehestan has long been considered one of the agricultural hubs of Yazd province. Also, due to the existence of the Rey-Kerman road, it is very important and due to its existence, it has been connected with the settlements in the south and southeast of Iran. This can be proven by archaeological data. Keywords: Yazd City, Yazd District, Kasah, Sasanian Coins, Geographical Resources.   Introduction One of the important cases that can be mentioned about the Yazd region is the existence of ambiguities about Kathah and the city of Yazd, which has caused different researchers to have different opinions about it. Also, one of the factors that has increased the ambiguity is the lack of archaeological data that can be related to polygamy. Although the city of Yazd was the center of local governments such as Alkakoyeh, Atabakan and Al-Muzaffar, but throughout its history has not been the center of great governments and despite of the harsh weather conditions, it has caused Muslim geographers to have little information about it. For this reason, it can be seen that at least in the early Islamic centuries, they did not provide much information about the Yazd, which was one of the mints of the Sassanian period. The purpose of this article is to investigate the importance and position of the city of Kathah in historical sources and geographical texts. From a descriptive and historical point of view, the place of the Kathah’s name has been studied based on cultures, dictionaries, historical and local texts, and archaeological data have also been used. From a research point of view, he has analyzed the obtained data and compared them with the geographical features of the Yazd-Ardakan plain. The most important questions are: 1. what is the position of the city of Kathah in the sources? 2. Considering the geographical features of the Yazd-Ardakan plain and its adaptation to the descriptions of the texts, which of the settlement centers in this plain can be matched with Kathah? The hypotheses that are raised are: 1. According to the data of local and geographical texts, it is clear that there is no common view of this city between different authors. 2. According to the descriptions of the geographical texts about this city, the Rustaq Dehestan can be matched with Kathah; because geographical texts mention that Kathah was located on the route from Rey to Kerman, which was the most important route to reach the southern and southeastern regions of Iran and was composed of different villages from the very beginning.   Discussion Kathah is one of the most important settlements in the Yazd region, which is mentioned in the geographical texts of early Islam period to the middle Ages. Local texts in Yazd date the construction of Kathah to pre-Islamic times and believe that it was built by Alexander and imprisoned some of Colonel of Darius III in this place. This story is mentioned with slight differences in other local texts and it is believed that after the construction of Yazd, the population will be transferred to Yazd. Local texts also consider to the creation of the city of the Yazd to be related to Sassanian periods, which had a different existence than the city of the Kathah. Although the historical sources do not mention Yazd much, but based on Sassanid coins, this city can be considered one of the mints of this period. According to available sources, Istakhri is the first geographer to mention Kathah as one of the four important cities of Yazd region. Other geographers have similar interpretations of the city. According to their descriptions, the Kathah was composed of different villages from the beginning and was located on one of the important roads in the Yazd region. By regarding the location of Kathah, it should be said that Rustaq is one of the settlements in Yazd district and one of the functions of the central part of Ashkezar city, which consists of different villages, some of which have been developed and turned into cities. Also, this area has been located on the route from the Ray to the Kerman from the beginning and is considered as one of the important agricultural centers in Yazd region. According to archeological data, the history of settlement in this area is related to the pre-Islamic period, and at least from the Parthian period, archaeological evidence can be seen in this area, and the settlement process continues until the contemporary period.   Conclusion The toponymeis of Yazd and Kathah and the relationship between the two have been one of the topics that have always occupied the minds of researchers in Yazd. Some consider Kathah to be a city built by Alexander and abandoned after the construction of the Yazd, while others believe that the city of Yazd was called Kath in the past. By examining the coins of the Sassanid period, it is clear that the city of Yazd is one of the mints of this period, and based on linguistic data, it is clear that this place referred exclusively to the city of Yazd. The Kathah is also an Arabic word from the root Kathah, which is referred to as one of its settlements due to the presence of sand dunes in the Yazd-Ardakan plain. Therefore, there is no consensus between local and geographical texts regarding Kathah. According to the descriptions of geographical texts, the only settlement area that corresponds to the mentioned descriptions is Rustaq Dehestan. One of the features of this village is the flowing sand hills. Also, the Rustaq from pre-Islamic times consisted of different villages that had the same area and number of them during different centuries. From an economic point of view, this village is on the way from the Rey to the Kerman, which has led to its development and cultural ties with some areas in the south and south of Iran, on the other hand, the existence of fertile soil has led to agricultural development.

According to experts, Sirvan historical site in Ilam province belongs to the Sassanid period or the early Islamic centuries. Despite the archaeological importance of this site, unfortunately, methodical and broad archaeological and archaeometical activities have not been performed. To the systematic investigation of samples obtained from the initial excavations for geoarchaeological studies, 14 potsherds from this site were examined. Concerning this question that what are the main geochemical properties, structural similarities, and differences between these specimens, experimental analysis was done. In order to the elemental and mineralogical description of samples, estimating their firing temperature, and preparing a model for classification of them, chemical composition and mineralogical phases of samples were characterized through X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The standard deviations of the amount of silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, and magnesium oxides were calculated at 11.527, 3.290, 2.705, 5.887, and 2.087, respectively. High dispersion of the quantity of elements especially for Si and Ca reveals that these samples belong to different workshops, regions, or historical periods with variation in sources and amounts of raw materials and processing steps.  in the same geographical area. Moreover, any special model for classification of samples not found, except samples no. S8 and S9 that have similarity in their chemical and mineralogical composition. In addition, the three samples S12, S13, and S14 have completely different chemical and mineralogical characterization and are probably to be imported products. Also in samples with a high amount of the calcium oxide (more than 6%), probably local limestones were used as temper. In general, these samples can be considered as local production (except for the three examples mentioned. Concerning not identifying the clay minerals and presence of calcite (likely primary), diopside, and gehlenite (as firing products), the firing temperature of these samples was estimated between 850 - 900. Keywords: Ilam, Sirvan Historical Site, Pottery, Structural Analysis, XRD and XRF.   Introduction The pottery abundance and its sufficiency in describing and interpreting the past cultures and civilizations have made it a significant source of information on regard to the reconstruction of human behavior in archaeological studies (Feinman & Skibo, 1999; Shrotriya, 2007). One aspect of research on pottery from archaeological excavations is the study of the characteristics of pottery in its archaeological context, i.e. paying attention to aspects of its preparing method, production technology, and its function (Sinopoli, 1991, p. 70). Potteries are analyzed through various approaches such as the study of macroscopic properties (shape, color, decorative patterns, etc.) and the study of microscopic properties such as mineralogy, and chemical composition and microstructure. The information obtained from the study of the mineral and chemical composition of pottery leads to recognition of their origin and production technology (Emami and Noghani, 2013). The historical site of Sirvan in Ilam province is one of the areas that, based on archaeological evidence and references in historical texts and sources, is a city belonging to the Sassanid era and the first centuries of the Islamic period (Alibeygi, 2012). Unfortunately, despite the archaeological importance of Sirvan, extensive archaeological activities and archaeological studies of the artifacts have not taken place in this area. In this study, for the first time, 14 samples of pottery obtained from archaeological activities (speculation for geological-archaeological studies) of this historical area, to identify the elements and compounds used in them, were experimented through X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, to estimate the sintering temperature of the samples. The main questions of this research are: 1: What are the main phases of these samples? 2: According to the identification of raw materials, what will be the basis for classifying these samples? 3: According to the identification of phases in the structure, in what range is the firing temperature of the samples estimated?   Materials and Methods Based on the variety of specifications and appearance characteristics, samples were classified into two groups of glazed samples (S4, S5, S6, S7, S10, S11, S12, S13, S14) and unglazed samples (S1, S2, S3, S8, S9). To identify the structure of these samples, X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF) (Magix-pro device manufactured by Philips India, and semi-quantitative software of IQ +) was used for elemental analysis and chemical composition detection, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to determine the primary and secondary phases. The XRD device used in this research was a BRUKER device made in Germany, model D4 and DIFFRAC Plus software. The analyzes were performed in the laboratory of the organization of Country Geology and Mineral Explorations.   Discussion In XRF analysis of samples, silicon, aluminum, calcium, iron, magnesium, are determined as the main elements, sodium and potassium as trace elements, and titanium, manganese, sulfur and strontium as rare elements. The highest weight percentage of compounds belongs to the sum of silicon oxide and aluminum oxide. The percentage of iron oxide in these samples varies between 2.5% to 9.965%. Iron is found in these historical potteries as an impurity of clay minerals or intentionally used by the potter. In relation to the detected calcium oxide, a range of changes can be observed. These samples can be divided into two categories: low calcium (CaO with a weight percentage of less than 6%) and high calcium (CaO with a weight percentage of more than 6%). According to the results of XRD analysis, the indicator phase in all samples is quartz. The type of feldspar detected in these samples is mainly anorthite and sodium anorthite and in two samples S11 and S14 calcium albite has been identified. Calcite was detected in all samples. Identification of diopside and gehlenite as products of the firing process indicates a temperature above 850 ° C for the firing process (Noghani and Emami, 2017).   Conclusion Concerning determine the chemical properties and investigating the possibility of systematic classification of specimens obtained from initial excavations from speculation for geoarchaeological studies of the  Sirvan historical site, 14 specimens of pottery were tested using XRF and XRD analyzes. According to the weight percentage of the identified compounds, these samples include silicon, aluminum, calcium, iron, and magnesium as main elements, potassium, sodium, and titanium as minor elements, and strontium, manganese, sulfur, and phosphorus as trace elements. Differences in weight percentages of identified elements and their high standard deviation indicate that a great variety is observed in terms of type and amount of raw materials and preparation processes. The observation of diopside and gehlenite phases along with calcite, and the lack of identification of clay minerals, probably indicate that due to the usage of carbonate soil, the particles of these phases are present as temper in the composition of raw materials and the firing temperature is about 850 or finally 900 ° C, except for the S1 sample, which due to the presence of calcite and dolomite and no detection of diopside or gehlenite, had the firing temperature of less than 850 ° C. In general, it seems that the samples studied in this research are the product of different pottery production workshops or different historical periods, and the sources of their raw materials have been prepared from various regions in the geographical area of Zagros.

Castles are strong and secure monuments built in the past on important points and roads. The geographical location of South Khorasan province in terms of natural features such as mountain ranges and low plains, has given a special identity to this region and the drought and the environment has created political instability, thereby creating a security architecture and aqueducts to adapt to the environment. Dastgerdan section is located in the western geographical area of South Khorasan province and due to special geographical Such as being located on the edge of the Lut Desert and being far from major urban and service centers, it has become an inaccessible area from government centers during various historical periods, it has many architectural works. In the archaeological survey of Dastgardan Tabas in 2015, castles from the Late Seljuk to early Pahlavi period have been identified that have not yet been studied the structure and function of each. It should be noted that the method of building castles in the region has influenced the architectural style of many buildings in this region, such as the use of towers and high fences. This paper is a descriptive-analytical approach based and it has been done by conducting field activities and referring to library sources such as historical sources of the Islamic period to explain and answer this question; Typology of castle architecture of Dastgerdan, based on performance and how the elements to be evaluated? Therefore, in this paper, it is attempted to analyze the important factors and factors in the formation of castles in the Dardgardan area. The purpose of this study is to know and study the physical structure of the architecture of Tabas Dastgerdan castles, their typology and chronology. A study of security buildings in the area shows, climatic conditions with vast desert areas and high places of refuge and socio-political developments due to the location of communication routes with the eastern borders and the vulnerability of the region during enemy attacks, as well as the distance from urban areas and the absence of a central government. The formation of the security architecture structure of the Dastgerdan section of Tabas has been influential in the Islamic period. The results indicate that security perception is one of the most influential concepts in shaping the fortresses of the area. Keywords: Castles, Architectural Structure, Function and Typology, Dastgardan Tabas.   Introduction The castle is one of the important biological centers known for its defensive elements. “The existence of safe havens, shelters and people’s resistance against foreign attacks should be considered as factors that have given cities a defensive role and put people together to counter and repel enemy attacks” (Shia, 2003: 11). Dastgardan section is located in the western geographical area of South Khorasan province. Among the architectural works left in Dastgardan, castles show more abundance. Castles are safe and strong structures that were built at key points and crossings. Hence, the geographical features of Dastgardan show that this area was located in the past, on the edge of Lut desert and eastern communication routes, and this situation has created special strategic conditions for it with political and social structure in the form of independent sovereignty and peasant rural population. By referring to the historical sources of the Islamic period (Hafez Abro, 1373: 1261), it can be seen that the Dastgardan region was located in the Qohestan area. Among the eastern regions of Iran, “Qohestan has characteristics that distinguish it from other neighboring regions throughout history, including its proximity to the eastern borders, its remoteness, and then its political isolation” (Daftari, 1996: 402). Due to the geographical location of the desert, the remoteness of the region has a direct impact on the process of the architectural structure of the region, and as a result, the most abundant architectural structures in the form of castles and towers have a security effect. As more than 18 healthy and semi-healthy castles have been identified in Dastgardan in the period from the late Seljuk period to the Qajar period and in this article 15 scientific studies have been studied. There were several other castles in this area that have been completely leveled today and only their names remain. The architecture of these structures is based on indigenous materials such as clay and stratification, in accordance with the climate of desert areas. Security is one of the most important concepts in shaping the body of castles in Dastgardan region. Common elements in Dastgardan security architecture such as tall and thick fences, cylindrical or conical towers, one or more gates and sometimes with a moat around the building are displayed. Many of the names and titles of the castles are derived from the name of the village in which they are located, and others belong to one or more of the owners of the building.   Typology and Functions of Dastgerdan Castles Looking at the division of types of defense fortifications based on climate (Sotoudeh, 1362: 14 and Pazuki-Troudi, 1376: 161), the castles of Dastgerdan region in two groups; A- Mountainous and B- Plain fortifications are divided. In general, the morphology of the fortifications of Dastgardan region in four groups; 1- Towers, 2- Mountain castles 3- Rural castles 4- Intermediate forts which are jointly understood with the two uses of Rabat and Qala. The effects of passive defense in the construction of Dastgardan and Abkhorg forts, which are evidence of the use of these two buildings in the Seljuk period, are more recognizable than other forts. In the discussion of the typology of castles in the region, the castle-village species can be seen in two villages of Dastgardan. According to surveys and aerial images, the two half-ruined castles are located near the villages of Dastgardan and Hodar. Arbab-serf castles can be seen in Dehkavir castles, Fathabad. The function of Abedi and Seyedi castles was to store grain in the village. He placed the two forts of Deh Mohammad and Pashnehdaran in the group of military forts.   Conclusion The importance and extent of each of the Dastgardan castles, depending on the climatic, political and social conditions, differ in design, materials, fortifications, number of towers and the size of each in the village. By simple definition, geographical conditions show structural differences in the design and type of materials of the mountain castle compared to the plains in the plain. Therefore, castles built on the plains are less strong. Also, from a social point of view, the proximity of some castles next to each other has increased the intensity of security in some villages and the face of rural development has changed based on the construction of different types of castles in the region. This is directly related to the numerous attacks of local invaders and insurgents in the eastern and border regions of Iran. In the forts of Dastgardan, the daughter of Abkhorg and Robat-e Deh Mohammad, the passive defense feature with large circular towers, a strong fence, a ditch and a lightning rod has made the necessary arrangements to stop the attacks of the enemies. This feature has affected the function of different types of castles in this area by analyzing and comparing the building elements such as towers, gates, spaces inside the castle, and how water is stored.

In the excavation of Barzul Nahavand Cemetery, with the aim of burying the dead, various objects of healthy pottery and bronze were accidentally encountered, which is remarkable in its kind. These newly discovered objects include 35 pieces of different pottery of the Islamic Middel Ages, such as simple and glazed pottery, and bronze metal objects and utensils. Imamzade Fazl Cemetery is located in the southwest of Barzul and is one of the ancient cemeteries of the Islamic era in Nahavand city, the tomb of Imamzadeh Fazl is also located in it, old tombstones with a history of more than a century in this cemetery confirm the historical antiquity of this cemetery. The purpose of this study is to analyze and date by examining the shape and decorative features as well as how to bury the discovered objects in Barzul Cemetery. In this regard, the research questions can be posed as follows: What historical period dose the objects of Barzul Cemetery belong to? And what is the purpose of burying and placing these objects in this cemetery? The research method is comparative study and descriptive-analytical. Data collection is also done in two ways: library and field. The results of the research show that the objects discovered from this cemetery are purposefully buried and belong to the 6th and 7th centuries AH based on relative and comparative dating. Also, due to the use of this area as a cemetery throughout history, based on the history of tombstones in the cemetery and Imamzadeh Fazl and the absence of cultural materials that can be considered as a settlement area, the presence of discovered objects could be purposeful in order to protect it from theft and looting in times of danger and crisis, or less likely superstitious aspect of the burial. Keywords: Barzul Cemetery, Pottery, Bronze, Islamic Periods.   Introduction Barzul city in Zarrin-Dasht section of Nahavand city has an old cemetery which is the burial place of Imamzadeh Fazl. Barzul Cemetery is located in the southwest of the city, where burial has been done for many years and is still going on. Following the digging of the grave for the burial of the dead, 35 pieces of ancient objects were accidentally encountered. This accident was reported to the cultural heritage officials of Nahavand city by the administrative management of the cemetery and the holy shrine of Imamzadeh Fazl, and will be handed over to the trustee of the General Directorate of cultural Heritage of Hamadan province. It should be noted that due to the compactness of various previous events in the past, it was not possible for archaeologists to further explore and expand the burial site in this area, and after burying the deceased, the discovery site will be filled. Among the 35 objects obtained, they are exquisite dishes that are unique in their kind and the necessity of introducing and analyzing them is required.   Research Method This research is based on comparative studies and has been done with a descriptive-analytical approach of newly discovered cemetery objects to Barzul. In the present study, by examining the studies performed on different types of Islamic pottery and putting together the results obtained, we have examined 35 pieces of different pottery of the medieval Islamic period, the type of golden-colored and enamel pottery, and metal and bronze dishes and other findings will be discussed and how the cultural relations and actions of this area with other cultures of the Islamic era are discussed. This research first deals with the typology of objects in two parts, typology in the type of shape and decorations used in construction, then typology in the appearance form and use of pottery. The following is a review of theoretical literature and archaeological studies related to Nahavand. In the third part of the research is dedicated to the geography and position of Nahavand city in the Islamic era, and in the fourth section, the objects discovered from the Barzul cemetery are examined and studied, and finally, the discussion and conclusion are presented in the final sections respectively.   Objects Discovered from Barzul Nahavand Cemetery As previously mentioned, 35 pieces of ancient objects were accidentally found in a grave excavation measuring 2×1/5 meters in a Barzul cemetery, which can be divided into two main parts, pottery and metal. The main part is made of pottery, which includes five types of plain unglazed pottery, 6 types of monochrome glazed pottery, four types of golden-colored pottery, and two types of multicolored enamel pottery, and the second part consists of metal objects, which are three bronze piece, four type, of bronze pitchers, three bronze bowls, two bronze cylindrical objects, a bronze lion statue, and the upper part, a bronze vessel and broken parts, which may have been broken during excavation. Various bronze vessels have been removed that need further repair and study.   Conclusion Different types of pottery of the Islamic era, the collection obtained from Barzul Nahavand Cemetery is one of the most valuable pottery finds in Hamadan province in terms of its health. There are generally divided into two categories: glazed and unglazed and based on the nature. They are also one of the most important elements of chronometry and chronology of this collection, in which accurate dating and historical nature have helped a lot in this research. In answer to the first question in this regard, pottery has a more acceptable relative and comparative dating capability. In general, the pottery discovered from Barzul cemetery can be studied and dated in the middle Ages and the 6th and 7th centuries AH, which shows the cultural interactions and trade of Islamic centers such as Sultanabad, Rey, Neishabour has provided Kashab with Nahavand. The clay finds of Barzul cemetery with regional and trans-regional finds from middle Ages. The pottery of Barzul collection is much closer to each other in terms of construction method and designs, and sometimes it can even be said that they are quite similar to each other. But in comparison with trans-regional examples, in some cases, they are similar in terms of construction method and form of dishes, but they have slight differences in terms of patterns and decorative designs. The most prominent pottery of Barzul collection should be considered as golden and enamel pottery. Based on comparisons with similar examples in other centers of the Islamic era in the period of the sixth century AH are located. The simple pottery species of Barzul cemetery do not have significant quality and are not reliable in the discussion of dating. In terms of bronze objects, jars and pitchers are among the most significant objects compared to other objects in the Barzul cemetery complex, a similar example of which has been obtained from Neishabour and belongs to the sixth century AH. In response to the second question, there are two hypotheses that due to the lack of cultural materials and the lack of sufficient information and the impossibility of excavation in Barzul cemetery, the purposeful burial of objects in the area of objects in the area of Imamzadeh Fazl in order to protect it from looting. In times of danger it has been the most logical option. Because proving the superstition of burial of objects due to the lack of sufficient and reliable information and the urgent need for cultural studies and ethnography will not be a little far from the mind.

From the first century BC, trade between the East and the West began through the Silk Road, and commercial goods, traditions, culture, and religious beliefs were exchanged between the civilizations of ancient China and the lands of the eastern Mediterranean. The Iranian Plateau, as a bridge, played an important role in this world trade between the Eastern and Western civilizations. During the insecurity of the Silk Road, along with the land routes, the water routes replaced the previous routes, that’s why the Persian Gulf has become the connection ring between the markets of ancient China and the more western lands. In the between, the historical ports of the Persian Gulf, especially unknown port of the Najirom, has played an important role. This historical port which is located in the sixty kilometers west of the Siraf historical port and ten kilometers from the Port City, in the maritime trade between the Iran and China from the Sassanid Period to the first centuries of Islamic Period, has played an important role. In the archeological exploration of Najirom historical port, the distribution of cultural materials including pieces of the Turquoise pottery, Torpedo pottery and Sgrafito pottery among the architectural remains in an area of three kilometers, parallel to the coast, in the spring of 2009, it’s announced the existence of a large population, industrial and commercial center.The identification of dozens of pieces of Chinese pottery, such as Celadon Pottery, Changsha Pottery and Blue and White Pottery and Chinese coins, also indicated the extensive trade relations between the Iranians and ancient China from the Sassanid Period to the middle centuries of the Islamic Period. In this research, meanwhile, introducing the cultural materials belonging to the ancient Chinese dynasties in the Najirom historical port, the position of this port in the Silk Road maritime and the Iran-China trade relations will be discussed. Keywords: Persian Gulf, Najirom Historical Port, Historical Pottery, Historical Coins, Ancient China.   Introduction In the archeological exploration of the historical ports of the Persian Gulf, while recognizing and studying the ancient ports of the Mahrouyan, the Siniz, the Genaveh, the Rig, the Shif, the Reyshahr, the Siraf, the Nay Band and the Haleh, the other important port which called “Bataneh” was identified. In the historical geographical sources of the first centuries of Islam Period was mentioned as “Najirom”, By studying the written sources of the beginning of Islamic Period such as the book of Masālik al-Mamālik Istakhri (died in 346 AH), Ibn Balkhi’s Fārsnāma (500 AH), Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam min al-Mashriq ilá l-Maghrib (372 AH), the Face of earth- Ibn Balkhi (367 AH), the Calendar of the countries of Abu al Feda (eighth century AH) and Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Maarefa al-Aqalim al-Maqdisi (380 or 390 AH), the area of Najirom Port on the west coast of Dair Port was determined. One of the most important goals of this research, is introduce this site as reallocation of this historical port and then study its trade relations with the civilizations of the ancient East, including ancient China. The study of cultural materials on the surface of this site, shows the commercial connection with the Chinese Dynasties from the Sassanid Period to the middle of Islamic Centuries. The great variety of Chinese pottery and coins, indicates the flourishing of trade with the Far East for more than 1300 years. Due to the many ambiguities regarding the Iranian maritime trade, seafaring and shipping in the Persian Gulf, the study of cultural materials obtained from the Najirom historical port will greatly help to illuminate the dark corners of the Persian Gulf maritime trade with distant lands. In the archaeological exploration of Najirom historical port, the surface pottery of this site, including the Turquoise Glazed Pottery, Sgrafito Pottery and Torpedo Pottery randomly were collected, and then other cultural materials, such as pieces of plaster, coins, seals and metal objects were studied in the year of 2009. Also the cultural materials scattered throughout the surface of the site, such as Chinese coins, the Celadon Pottery, Blue and White Pottery and Changsha Pottery from various dynasties, indicating long-standing trade relations with the ancient China was carefully considered. On this occasion, the cultural materials imported from ancient China, including the Celadon Pottery, Blue and White Pottery, Changsha pottery and the other pottery attributed to the China and the Chinese coins, analytically will be studied, and the position of Najirom historical port on the Silk Road waterway, will be explained. The research method in this article is field research and also library studies, in which the cultural materials obtained from the surface of the ancient site of Najirom historical port analytically will be studied.   The Cultural Materials Obtained from the Najirom Port, by the Ancient Chinese Origin In the archeological exploration of Najirom historical port, a large number of Chinese Pottery and coins were found, which shows the trade exchanges between the Iran and China from the Sassanid Period to the middle centuries of Islamic Period.   A: Chinese Pottery from of Najirom Historical Port Celadon Pottery: The first group of pottery was found in the Najirom historical port, is Chinese pottery, that has been traded from East Asia. Among the Chinese pottery, Celadon Pottery is more abundant. Changsha Pottery: The second Chinese Pottery discovered from the Najirom historical port is the Changsha Pottery, which was belonged to the Tang Dynasty in the ninth century AD. This porcelain pottery unlike the celadon pottery has decoration and was found in several different shapes. Blue and White Pottery: The third discovered Chinese pottery from the Najirom historical port is the Blue and White Porcelain. Brown Glazed Pottery: In general, brown glazed pottery has two general shapes: the medium jars with the four horizontal handles and narrow mouths, and the small jars with open mouths and medium necks on the shoulders of the containers, which have high motifs on the pottery body.   B: Chinese Coins Discovered from the Najirom Historical Port The eleven Chinese coins were discovered and studied, which including five intact coins and six broken coins. The two of intact coins were belonged to the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD). Among the six broken coins, one of them was belonged to the Jain Dynasty (1234-1115 AD). Another coin discovered from the Najirom historical port was belonged to the southern Song Dynasty (960-1279). There is also a Chinese coin from the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD). The last Chinese coin from the discovered coins from the Najirom historical port was belonged to the Ching Dynasty. The Great Qing Dynasty (Manchu) (1644 to 1912).   Conclusion In the archaeological exploration of Najirom historical port, in addition to identifying the cultural materials belonging to the Sassanid Period and the first centuries of Islamic Period, from other lands including the East Africa, the Indian subcontinent and various dynasties of ancient China, countless archeological materials were identified. Meanwhile, the Chinese pottery and coins were more abundant. The Celadon Pottery, Changsha Pottery, Blue and White Pottery and brown glazed pottery were among the most important porcelain pottery discovered in the Najirom historical port. The Chinese coins also belonged to the Tang (618-907 AD), Jin (1224-1115 AD), Southern Song (1279-960 AD) and Yuan (1368-1271 AD) Dynasties. There is also a coin belonging to the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China from 1633 to 1912. Based on the pottery and Chinese coins discovered from the Najirom historical port, it can be concluded, that, this historical port had trade relations from the Sassanid Period to the eighth century AH, and finally until the last centuries. Of course, the peak of this maritime trade was from the Sassanid Period to the Ilkhanate Period, and after that, the trade center in the Persian Gulf has been moved to other places. The further study of the Persian Gulf maritime trade with the ports of ancient China, requires archeological excavation in the Najirom historical port.

Based on historical documents, “Khān Lanjān” was one of the ancient and peripheral settlements in south of Isfahān city that had flourished as an Islamic town in the center of “Alanjān Rostaq” or Lanjān district from the early Islamic to 7th century AH. Despite the importance of Khān Lanjān town, most prior researchers have focused on the Khān Lanjān mountainous fortress and there are still some ambiguities about the Khān Lanjān town’s location and military, economic and social structure and also decline factors.While investigation of the characteristics of Khān Lanjān town as a case study of surrounding settlements can be used as a model for study and analyze of these kinds of Islamic settlements in Iran. Hence the present paper try to examine structure and evolutions of this town by using data obtained from written sources, archaeological survey and remote sensing and by a descriptive-analytical method. Moreover, it has been attempted to suggest the location and approximate extent of Khān Lanjān town. The results show that contrary to previous studies, Khān Lanjān town did not correspond to the Firūzān town’s location and it was located in the south of Qaleh Bozi mountain where environmental potentials and strategic location, such as direct access to Zāyandeh rūd water and ancient routes of Fars and Bakhtiari and also adjacent to Khān Lanjān mountainous castle, had an effective role in growth and prosperity of this town from agricultural, commercial and defensive aspects. According to the theory of “urban network”, Khān Lanjān town was considered as a subordinate of Isfahan city from political dimension during its life, but in the regional level of Lanjān district, this town had a central role and has involved in the management of surrounding micro and macro scale settlements. The destruction Khān Lanjān fortification and the selection of Firūzān as the center of Lanjān district in the Il-Khānid period were main agents in gradual decline of Khān Lanjān town.Keywords: Isfahān, Alanjān Rostaq, Khān Lanjān Town, Zāyandehrūd River, Urban Network.IntroductionMany researchers have focused on the types of Islamic settlements and offered different opinions in this field. It is clear that all settlements have not been created under same factors and in each case, political, military and economic equations have had special effects in Islamic settlements creation, extent and reputation. However, to ease management and administrative affairs, there was a kind of hierarchy for human settlements in the Islamic world. One of the valid written sources in this field is the book of Ahsan Al-Taqāsim fi Marifat al-Aqalim by al-Muqaddasi (4th/10thcentury) which based on general criteria, classified Islamic settlements into 5 groups: first, “Mesr” or megacity, second,”Qasabah” or the state capital, third, “Madinah” or town, fourth “District” or rural areas and finally “Den” or village. The Khān Lanjān settlement which is the subject of this paper, during its life was considered as a “Madinah” or “town” in the center of the “Alanjan district” but politically was one of the subordinates of Isfahan “Qasbeh”.Le Strange introduced Khān Lanjān town just based on written sources and he believed that the location of Khān Lanjān correspond to the Firuzan, an Il-Khanid town in the north of Qaleh Bozin mountain (Le Strange,1905). Then, Stern one of the first researchers who attempted to study Islamic cities using historical data and archaeological evidences surveyed this site in 1965. He suggested that the possible location of Khān Lanjān town was in the north of Khān Lanjān castle and around the current Felavarjān city (Stern, 1971: 46). However, there are still questions and ambiguities about the Khān Lanjān town place in the Lanjan region, its spatial extent and also factors affecting growth and decline of this settlement. Answering to the raised questions and studying the Khān Lanjān town as a case study of settlements around large cities(such as Isfahan) with agricultural economics can be used as a suitable model for investigation and analysis of these types of settlements in Iran during the early and medieval  Islamic period. Accordingly, the Objectives of This Paper AreRecognizing main agents in development and then gradual decline of Khān Lanjān town. 2. Proposing the approximate location and extent of Khān Lanjān town. 3. Study of the Khān Lanjān town place at the micro level and among the settlements in Lanjān district and at the macro level and in relation to the Isfahan city.Based on mentioned goals, the authors intend to prove the claim that Khān Lanjān located in the south of Qala-e-Bezi Mountain and environmental potentials and strategic location led to selection of this town as a military, commercial and cultural center in Alanjān Rostaq before the Il-khanid rule in 7th/13th century. It has been attempted to study Khān Lanjān town using data obtained from written sources, archaeological survey in 2015 and remote sensing methods. ConclusionThe results show that Khān Lanjān town did not correspond to Firūzān and it was located in the South of Qaleh Bozi Mountain. Some facilities in this place, such as access to permanent Source of Zāyandeh rūd water and Fars and Bakhtiari ancient routes and also adjacent to Khān Lanjān mountainous fortress had an effective role in growth and prosperity of Khān Lanjān town. The destruction of the mountainous Khān Lanjān fortification and development of the Il-khnid town, Firūzān in the north of Qala-e-Bazi mountain are the main causes of Khān Lanjān town town decline.

The city of Soltanieh was built in 703 to 716 AH, thirty kilometers southeast of Zanjan city, as the political center, the capital of the Mogul Ilkhan sultanate. In addition to the capital and its political issues, Soltanieh’s historical value reflects the tremendous advancement of architecture in the Islamic era, where various public and private buildings have been constructed. Mausoleum architecture is one of the most important manifestations of Iranian and Islamic architectural art. In the 8th/10th century, several historical religious monuments were constructed which are known as “tomb towers” in Iranian architectural culture. Tappeh Noor, one of the largest ancient hills of Soltanieh plain, is located 1500 meters south of soltanieh dome. Tappeh-e-Noor is one of the most important places containing information about the Mogul Ilkhan period. Excavation was carried out in October 2009 in The Central Light Hill and focused on showing architectural works. The results of the excavation led to the identification of the tomb tower related to the Ilkhanid period. In this study, we tried to present the results of exploration, architectural structural analysis and its chronology. Data collection was done based on field and library methods. Excavation of this site led to the identification of the tomb tower from the Ilkhanid period. First, the interior of the dome space is constructed with stone carcasses and chalk mortar in the form of a cruciferous, along with an atrium-like entrance and a dome stem that is not currently available. This area is architecturally and decorated with the tombs of Qom’s Green Dome Garden (Khajeh Ali Safi, North Dome and Khajeh Asil al-Din Tomb) and Azerbaijani Tomb Tower (Three Domes of Urmia, Burgundy Dome of Maragheh), Baba Hossein Malayer Tomb Tower, Imamzadeh Hood Tomb Tower in Jezin Hamedan, etc. Comparison. Keywords: Soltanieh, Tomb, Tappeh-e-Noor Enclosure, Archaeological Findings. Introduction Zanjan province, due to the special geographical location in the Islamic era, especially the Ilkhan era, is one of the important social and cultural political centers. Soltanieh city was constructed 30 kilometers from Zanjan, a connection between the northwest and other parts of the country, along with the main route of the Silk Road. Before Islam, the Sultania plain also had signs of life and civilization.Prehistory periods (old bronze), history (Mad, Parthian, Sassanid) have been considered. Archaeological evidence shows that since the fifth millennium 2001, the pottery obtained from The Hill of Light in the southeast of the old city of Soltanieh indicates this (Mirtah, 1991:156). The first archaeological surveys during Wolfram Kleiss’s visit to the Sultania Plain between 1968 and1984. (Kleiss,1997:386). Mausoleums in Soltanieh in the past decades have been destroyed and then refurbished and others buried in the heart of the soil after destruction are the most prominent of these buildings: 1- Chelpioglu tomb 2- Tomb of Mulla Hassan Kashi 3- Kaboud Dome and Central Light Hill which was archaeologically explored in 2009 under the supervision of Abdolreza Mohajerinejad. And the tomb tower of the Ilkhan period was found. In order to gain more knowledge of the tomb buildings of the Ilkhan period. In this research, the main objectives of this study are to present the results of the exploration report and discuss the obtained architectural analysis and its chronology. Materials and Methods: The data collection of this research is based on field method and library data collection, and descriptive-analytical method. Research Background: The first archaeological surveys of the Sultania plain of Wolfram Kleis between 1968 and 1984 (Kleiss, 1997: 357,386). The beginning of archaeological studies and researches of Tappeh-e-Noor was conducted in 1971 by Dr. Saeed Ganjavi in The Central Hill. (Ganjavi, 1976: 166). Then, with the beginning of archaeological activities after the Islamic Revolution and Dr. Mirtah’s presence in soltanieh excavations, they conducted two seasons of exploration in 1989 and 1988 on the slopes south of The Central Light Hill (Mirtah, 1990 and 1995). In July 2009, the privacy of Tappeh-e-Noor area was determined by Abdolreza Mohajerinejad.  Explore Method: First, the site mapping was carried out on a scale of 1.2000 and 1.500 and divided into four houses 100×100 meters, and then the points to be explored were divided into 10×10 squares, which ultimately included 17 trenches. Recording and recording data and describing the works of locomose-locos study. The Main Architectural Spaces of the Central Light Hill Tomb: The Main Architectural Spaces of the Central Light Hill Tomb First place: The environment of the first row is 84 meters and its height is 130 cm, this office is formed with carcass materials of stone and green carved stones (tofite) that the carcasses of rocks are located under the tofite stones in two reg. Each office has twelve sides that decorate and façade with green stones (tofite), which this type of 12-sided plan can be seen in other Islamic buildings, especially the tower of Ilkhanid tombs. Second Place: Form, shape, façade, decoration, materials and mortar used in office number one and two are similar and the difference is only in dimensions, size and environment (page number two on page one). Its environment is 64 meters, which like Soffeh No. 1 has twelve sides and appendages as façade, which is located inside the 12-sided plan of Soffeh No. 1 and has become narrower. Its diameter and width are also 450 cm. Third Place: Soffeh No. 3 of the stem and the body of the dome which is located on the second row and only traces of bricks remain. According to the available evidences, its diameter may be 16 meters in the form of cylindrical_A and due to the diameter of the 9-meter span of the pattaghs, it seems that its height is probably 18 meters. Wolfram Kleis compared the architecture of Tappeh-e-Noor to the architecture of the Dome of Qaboos voshmgir (kleiss,1997), Such a similarity that Klais does not make sense with the Qaboos Voshmgir Tower and the design he presented for the Hill of Light. The Klais design in the stem and body of the dome is grooved, the decorations of the artifact cannot be installed and designed in the groove of the body and stem of the dome (Mohajerinejad, 2009: 186).   Conclusion After completing the exploration of the central light hill, a tomb tower with a twelve-sided plan was identified. The tomb consists of 3 offices with stone structures in variable sizes and dimensions that are narrower from the bottom up. Twelve-sided exterior plan and inside the tomb are faced with cruciferous space.The tomb of Tappeh Noor is architecturally similar to the tombs of the Ilkhanid period, with this difference, the tomb of Tappeh-e-Noor is built from the materials of stone and stone carcasses. During the exploration of some spaces with simple glazed bricks in turquoise color and with dimensions of 6cm 6×6×20 and stained bricks, with azure glaze on them with white glaze and various motifs with geometric designs (quadrilateral, quadrant, circular), plant, (flower, four leaves, octopus flower, etc.) The inscription (the design of the four alis) was decorated. Examples of building decorations in Ilkhanid buildings in Soltanieh plain, Hamedan, West Azerbaijan, etc. Observed.The findings of pottery obtained from exploration, simple and stained glazed pottery, in terms of role including the role of stump, geometric under glaze, painting on glaze, of common decorations in the pottery collection, the role of esgraphia, highlights and glazed stained (turquoise black pen and molded and compressive type, etc.

Colorful decorations and wall paintings are one of the most important and widely used decorating methods applied in the construction of Gonbad-e Soltanieh. Understanding the type of colors and how these paintings and decorations were applied can be one of the most important discussions in knowing more and better about this building and the techniques and paints common in ancient times. Therefore, the present study aims to study how the ground was prepared for the implementation of colorful decorations and paintings, as well as what type of colors was used to reach a comprehensive knowledge of the techniques applied by Ilkhanid painters. To this end, the Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis is used to investigate the order of layers and plastering and also, the X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and more chemical methods are used to study the type of green, blue, yellow, red, white and black colors. SEM analysis showed the type of plastering and the order of the painting layers well. Also, XRD and more chemical analyses identified the colors of malachite green, colored green, azurite blue, red ochre, yellow ochre, anhydride white and carbon black.  Keywords: Colored Ornaments, Mural, Ancient Colors, Soltanieh Dome, XRD, SEM.   Introduction The Soltanieh (or Soltaniyeh) Dome is located in the city of Soltanieh, one of the capitals of Ilkhanate, a Mongol dynasty built by Jaljaitü (a.k.a. Muhammad Khodabandeh). It was inscribed on the list of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites as the seventh building in Iran in 2005. In terms of outstanding architecture, colored ornaments, and murals (frescos) on the various beds (substrates, subgrades) of the Soltanieh Dome, they are the most important and widely used buildings in the Ilkhanate era. This study focuses on various important features of the Soltanieh Dome building, including interior decoration. In the interior of the building, a series of elevated porches have been formed, including decorations implemented in various ways. The Soltanieh Dome was decorated in two stages during the Ilkhanate era, during the reigns of Jaljaitü and Abu Sa’id, according to politico-religious considerations or special personalized tendencies. The decorations of the first period include the main decorations of the dome, bricks, and tiles, and the decorations of the second period include plaster molding, painting, and Pateh (needlework folk art) on the decorations of the first layer. In this regard, the identification of colors and the implementation of these decorations can be considered as one of the most important issues for better identification of this building and the techniques and colors common in the Islamic Middle Ages. Therefore, this study seeks to answer the following questions: 1) According to studies, what kind of dyes (dyeing materials) were used in the Ilkhanate era? 2) Considering a prominent building such as the Soltanieh Dome, what are the layers identified in the background of the decorations used in the paintings belonging to the Ilkhanate era? And how was the background prepared? 3) What kind of chemical compounds were used to make dyes in Soltanieh Dome? By scrutinizing similar studies in the context of comparative background, this study sought to gather comprehensive information on the dyeing materials and techniques used by Ilkhanate era painters. This study employs an empirical-descriptive methodology. Initially, a series of field observations were made on the dyes (colors) used in the interior decoration of the north and southeast sides of the Soltanieh Dome, followed by sampling as per the sampling principles. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) method, including secondary electrons (SE) and backscattered electrons (BSE), was used to examine the arrangement of the layers in the painting motifs. Moreover, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and wet chemistry methods were used to identify the types of pigments used: green, blue, yellow, red, white, and black. According to the results of macroscopic and microscopic investigations into the arrangement of the layers in the Soltanieh Dome decorations, it has been determined that the layers are located in the following order: support, scratch coat (arriccio), fine coat (intonaco), primary layer, and paint layer, respectively. In the Soltanieh Dome, brick and tile decorations from previous periods are used as a support for paintings. Scratch coat was implemented using coarse-grained meal plaster. Furthermore, fine-grained plaster of Paris was used to prepare fine coat plaster. Finally, the primary layer was made using fine-grained dead burnt plaster, canvassed, and prepared by a medium. Additionally, studies performed using the wet chemistry method showed the composition of gypsum, lime, and ash. XRD analysis results also indicated an 84% gypsum phase and a 16% quartz phase. As mentioned earlier, failure to detect calcite phases may be attributed to its small amounts in the composition. According to the results of a qualitative wet chemistry test, a mixture of gypsum and small amounts of ash and lime were identified, applied to the decorations of the first period, to the gypsum layer. However, XRD analysis showed only gypsum and some silica, and no calcite was detected, which can be attributed to its small amount in the composition. Moreover, ash is an organic material and cannot be detected in XRD analysis. The colors green, red, yellow, white, black, and blue, are applied in decorations and paintings in the porch and hallway of the Soltanieh Dome. Examination of the colors used in the decorations applied to the paintings in this building indicates the existence of two types of green colors with different tonalities. One is the dark green color that is widely used in a wide range of buildings, and the other is the much lighter green color used to paint the leaves and flowers among the brandeburgs and the floral patterns of the porches, visible with a little care. Nevertheless, this color is not visible at first glance, which is because it is severely damaged and is currently seen in gray and dark colors. Most of this color is gone, and only small parts of it can be seen in the more solid parts of the color, left in light green-blue at the margins of the leaf or flora patterns as a thicker layer of color. Malachite green is used in the plaster molding of the first-floor corridor and light green-blue color in the painting decorations of the southeast porch. Analysis of light green in porch paintings by XRD indicated the presence of arsenic and copper acetate (CuOAc) (a.k.a. cupric acetate) as pigment compounds. In addition to light green, a darker green color can be seen in porch decorations, specifically due to the change in color of azurite blue to malachite or copper trihydroxychlorides. Nonetheless, this section emphasizes light green, which is not the result of azurite blue discoloration (changes in azurite blue). Dye traces and degradation can be seen in several areas. Given the compounds identified in the XRD analysis for light green, it is likely that verdigris green was also used. The presence of copper arsenic may be attributed to the presence of arsenic in the primary copper composition used to make verdigris green. Blue was detected in painting decorations, Pateh (needlework folk art) margins, and azurite building plaster molding. Furthermore, the results of wet chemistry and the XRD test indicated the use of azurite blue. Most of the raised parts of the first-floor corridor (hallway) are decorated in white. Besides, encircling was done with white paint to create brick patterns on the walls of the corridor after painting the surface yellow. Heat test results showed the presence of sulfate ions (SO42-) in this dye, indicating the use of anhydride as a dye. Yellow is used in the decoration of the first floor of the Soltanieh Dome to make decorative brick patterns on plaster. The results of wet chemistry experiments (tests) indicated the presence of iron in the composition of this pigment. In addition, the pigment turned reddish-brown due to heat. Therefore, it was found that yellow ocher was used in these parts.   Conclusion Moreover, red is used on the plaster molding in the first-floor hallway. The results of laboratory studies using wet chemistry and heat also indicated that red ocher was used in these areas. This red color is also used in many buildings of other Ilkhanate periods. Carbon black has also been used in Soltanieh Dome decorations to encircle decorations and other colors. To identify the type of black pigment used, a sample of the desired color was placed on direct heat. After a while, it disappeared due to high heat (high temperature), which can be attributed to burning carbon, indicating the presence of carbon black. Thus, following the determination of the type of carbon black dye utilized, instrumental methods such as XRD were not used to identify its nature (to characterize it). In summary, the results of this study using instrumental analysis suggested that the following dyeing materials were used: Malachite and verdigris green for green, azurite for blue, and red ocher in the form of iron oxide for red, ocher for yellow, and anhydride and carbon black for white and black, respectively.

The historic city Sangbast is located near the village of Sangbast in the north of Fariman. Given the value of this historical complex, this is the first systematic archaeological research to be conducted to date. The importance and size of the site creates that archaeological research can be done in a specific building of this large complex with a specific purpose. Therefore, the most important building of this unique historical city, namely the mosque, was selected to conduct speculation to study its architectural features. According to the evidence and information in the historical texts, this mosque was built at a time when the Khorasanian architecture style was declining and the Razi Iranian architectural style was expanding. Therefore, it was necessary to answer the question whether the Sangbast mosque was built with the architectural thinking of Khorasanu style or Razi style? Or is a combination of both styles implemented in it? This research has done by descriptive-historical-analytical method based on archeological excavations and library documents and studies. Speculations located on the south side and the qibla of the mosque showed that the mosque has a porch with thick, high and naves on both sides. In front of the Mehrab, there is a pulpit of the mosque, which was probably destroyed in the earlt centuries of Islam, and in the 8th century AH, a new pulpit was built with bricks and plaster. It seems that the historic Sangbast mosque restored many times until the early Safavid period, when it was in decline. The architectural features of the building plan show that it is similar to the works of Khorasani style, but the historical mosque of Sangbast can be considered as a building from the tradition period from Khorasani to Razi style architecture. Keywords: Sangbast, Fariman, Ghaznavid Architecture, Sangbast Mosque, Arsalan Jazeb.   Introduction Iranian architecture underwent changes and transformations from the Ghaznavid period, and due to the political and social conditions of the country, it left its period of nature. This accelerated further during the region of Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznavi. Architecture is fading under the influence of the Arabs in Iran and Iranians are looking at the historical and valuable architecture of the past to establish a new architecture and art that was based on the pillar of pre-Islamic Iranian architecture. The behavior of the Arab rulers caused the Iranian to use the potential and actual talents of Iran in the service of the growth and development of Islam by preserving the heavenly religion of Islam. This research was conducted with multiple objectives and to answer the questions that are mentioned below. Archaeological studies in the field of architecture of the Ghaznavid period and the fourth century AH in learn are very few and almost zero. Since the results of archaeological studies are undoubtedly the most documented information in general knowledge in all historical fields and complement historical information and written sources, conducting this research by exploring archeology leads us to the desired goals. The first purpose of this study is to obtain more complete information about the architecture of the Ghaznavid period, which has so far received less attention and no action has been taken in this regard. The second goal is to check the authenticity of this mosque to the end of the fourth century AH, which Arsalan Jazeb the ruler of Khorasan to build.   Geographical Location of Fariman Sangbast Sangbast village is located in the north of Fariman city, at a distance of 37 km from the city center, with a longitude of “33,0059’35 and a latitude of “43,16’46’59 and an altitude of 1115 meters above sea level (Figure2). According to the historians and travel writers of the Islamic Middle Ages, Sangbast was the crossing point of trade caravans and a famous house between Neishabour and Sarakhs (Sam’ani, 1382, 259, Hamavi, 1356, 112, Zahiri Neyshabouri, 1332:13, Ibn Athir, 1372, 146, Zahabi, Bita, 388.   The Historical Complex of Sangbast Sangbast historical complex in terms of its special geographical location has always been inhabited during the Islamic period, however, the historical ups and downs and the positive and negative events that Irab has always faced have a special role in this issue. But throughout history, there has always been communication, and Sangbast has had a special place along the Silk Road. The passage of time and various factors that, of course, should not be ignored due to climate change, have caused the relocation of the Sangbast historical complex. Today, from superficial evidence we see three different parts of Sabgbast.   Conclusion The study and research in historical city of Sangbast shows that it has always been considered during the Islamic era and has enjoyed a special prosperity at the crossroads of the east-west and north-south communication highways. The mosque of this city, as the most important building of this complex and the representative of Ghaznavid architecture, provides valuable information. The mosque was built based on historical texts and archaeological evidence in the late fourth and early fifth centuries AH. Due to the destruction that took place in the later centuries and after the abandonment of the mosque, it is difficult to distinguish whether the mosque was built in the form of Khorasani style or Razi style; however, the plan of the nave , the simplicity of the building and the existence of the minaret outside the central courtyard( south corner) indicate the characteristics of Khorasani style architecture, but at the same time, the evidence obtained from the decoration of the beginning of fundamental changes and transformations, among the obvious changes are the presence of a porch on the side of the qibla and the addition of colorful bed decorations, murals, bed inscriptions and brickwork on the walls of the boiling. Since the Khorasani style was formed and grew in Greater Khorasan, the change in this style probably started from the same area, therefore, Sangbast Mosque has been one of the pioneers of these changes due to its location and strategic importance. Considering the centrality of the cities of Ghazneh and Balkh in the Ghaznavid period and the glorious period of the role of Sultan Mahmud, a lot of similarities can be seen in the bed decorations of the mosques of these cities with the decotations of the Sangbast mosque. One of the prominent patterns in the decoration of mosques in this region during the Ghaznavid period was the nine-dome mosque in Balkh. Therefore, it can be said that in the early fifth century AH in Khoradan, the change in the architectural elements of mosques began and gradually spread to other parts of the country.

Mazandaran is one of the Iranian culture domains possessing tombs with unique structural properties. Eighth and ninth centuries AH are the periods of the formation and persistence of tower tombs in Mazandaran. They often have similar structures and include Colonial dome, body, and drum. Although many of them have sustained damages during the long years, the main issue is the shortage of coherent and scientific studies about the structure of these tombs for the preservation and repair them. The present study’s main goal is the identification and discovery of the proportion’s existent in the primary elements of the Timurid era’s tombs in Mazandaran (body, drum, and Colonial dome). Based thereon, about thirty historical tombs were investigated through a positivism approach and via field studies and document research, and their common and distinct points were recognized. In between, seven tombs were selected for more precise investigation due to the contextual and structural similarity. The effort has been made in this study to find answers to questions like the following: what is the intention of the existence of hidden proportions in the tombs from the eighth and ninth centuries AH in Mazandaran? Are the studied tombs related in terms of shape and structure and do they follow similar proportional order? The present study will show that the studied tombs have 1:1, 1:2, and 1:3 proportions in the body, drum, and Colonial dome. The identification of the hidden proportions can be promising in the reading and reconstruction of the primary lines in the damaged tombs. Moreover, a continuation of the research in this regard can lead to the discovery of a particular “proportion system” in this area. Although the studied tombs have a diverse formation system, there is a special and nearly identical proportion governing their structure. Keywords: Proportions, Mazandaran, Tower Tombs, The Eighth and Ninth Centuries A.H.   Introduction Tabarestan is the resort and burial place of Imamzadehs and their tombs in the historical periods of Timurid, Safavid, and Qajar with various construction patterns. This paper studied thirty tombs in different parts of Mazandaran province. They belong to different regions of Mazandaran and have a three-part structure; The body, drum, and dome present in all tombs (Table 1). Comparative studies and field studies on them led to a relative knowledge of the tombs and strengthened the possibility of special proportions in the three-part structure of the tombs. The height of the body, drum, and dome represented a kind of geometric connection, and by further analysis, some physical similarities were found between them. The similarities were examined, and the following seven tombs built in one period were selected for further study: Darvish Fakhr Al-din in Babol Darvish Alam Bazigar Kola in Bobol Imamzadeh Ghasem Hashtel in Babol Darvish Golema, Sari Imamzadeh Ali Akbar, Owsa Imamzadeh Saleh, Marz Roud Dome Shater, Sari The main problem is the increasing growth of inappropriate conservative measures and distortion of dynamic proportions in the three-part structure of tombs. Heterogeneous physical interventions in recent years in the tombs of Mazandaran have caused damage to the body and the destruction of geometry, patterns, and proportions in the structure of tombs. Accordingly, two questions and hypotheses are raised in the paper. 1- What is the purpose of the existence of dynamic proportions in the tombs of the 8th and 9th centuries AH of Mazandaran? The tombs of the 8th and 9th centuries AH in Mazandaran have systematic proportions of 1:1, 1:2, and 1:3 in the body, drum, and colonial dome. These elements are structurally and formally related to each other, and by changing the scale of each, the other element will also be readable and will change in harmony with the overall shape of the building. The mentioned proportions are especially present in these tombs and can be identified. 2- Do the tombs under study have a formal and structural relationship with each other and follow a similar proportional order? Although the tombs under study have a diverse formation system, special and almost the same proportions govern their structure. Identifying dynamic proportions can be helpful in re-reading and reconstructing the main lines of similarly damaged tombs. Continuation of this process may lead to the discovery of another “proportional system” in this area. This research tried to investigate the dimensions of the drum, dome, and body in the seven mentioned tombs and, through this, to achieve dynamic proportions in the three-part structure of the tombs.   The Proportions Between the Body, Colonial Dome, and Drum in the Toms of the Eighth and Ninths Century A.H. The tombs studied are often related to the Timurid period. These buildings were located outside the city and near the cemetery and were built for pilgrimage. Octagonal tombs with multi-faceted roofs and three-part facades are the criteria of some tombs of Mazandaran in this period. They are often seen with quadrangular, octagonal (Blair, 1983, 69), dodecagon, and cruciform plans, and sometimes other spaces were created as a prayer hall next to the main courtyard. A case study was started to examine the mentioned proportions among thirty tombs located in Mazandaran. In the study of plain tombs, a number of them that were very similar in terms of scale, structure, and type of materials were selected for the study. The facade of the remaining 7 tombs was surveyed, and proportions revealed formed the research findings. Based on the surveyed dimensions, the dimensions that are close to each other in terms of the composition of the body, drum, and dome are divided into three categories (A is the height of the dome house body): Tombs with the height of A<6m Tombs with the height of 6

The decorative motifs of tombstones are a reflection of cultural, social and religious conditions, which are manifested in the form of animal, plant, geometric, human, inscription and symbolic motifs. The study of the hidden and visible qualities of historical cemeteries is very important in order to understand some of the worlds and relations that governed past societies; Because by reflecting on the environmental qualities of these areas and also researching the cultural materials scattered in their environment, one can dig into the understanding of some unknowns from the history of societies and understanding angles of the dominant intellectual nature of them. The purpose of this article is to realize the importance and political, social and religious status of Turjan village in the Qajar period by relying on written and archeological evidences such as tombstones, Sheikh Vesu cemetery. And given that no research has been done on this cemetery so far, Therefore, the study of the cemetery can show the importance of this type of artifacts in the archaeological studies of the Islamic period in the city of Saqqez and especially in the province of Kurdistan. The tombstone of Turjan historical cemetery as an example in the form of a statistical community in terms of time and morphology is comparable to other Qajar cemeteries and architectural decorations of Mukrian region such as Bukan, Tekab and Mahabad. This article will try to answer the following questions: Who were the prominent people buried in this cemetery and what was their role or place in the history of this region and The study of literary inscriptions and rich motifs of the tombstones of Sheikh Wesu Cemetery In terms of variety and quality of works, what important cultural and social results of their time? In the leading research, which was conducted in a descriptive and analytical method, the designs and arrays on the tombstones were described, classified, designed, documented and analyzed. The findings of the study indicate that a number of tombstones with significant decorations in this cemetery belonged to the Quoj Beeg family and people with high social status in the Mukrian area. In addition, relying on this cemetery, we can understand the political and social importance of Turjan and also the position of this village as a well-known religious and cultural center in the region during the Qajar period. Keywords: Turjan, Sheikh Wusu Graveyard, Tombstone, Qoj Baig. Nuralnesa.   Introduction From the beginning of existence until today, one of the most basic thoughts of man has been the issue of death and the world after it. From the creation of works such as sculptures, paintings and illustrated works. One of the inseparable components of this thinking in all societies, which has been used as an essential tool for its objective and spiritual manifestations, is the tomb and the tombstone. The Qajar cemetery of Sheikh Vesu in the village of Turjan is one of the most important historical cemeteries in Iran, which is located in Kurdistan province and in the city of Saqez, which has not been studied yet. Introducing the mosque of Turjan Saqez village” has been pointed out its importance (Salimi and Solhjoo, 1397: 81). Suitable natural and environmental conditions such as sufficient water, suitable air and fertile soil make the history of human habitation in Turjan village at least to the Mesopotamian period (Zarefar, 1397: 79). During the Safavid period, when Budaq Sultan came to power in Mukrian province to the center of Mahabad, the areas around Turjan, including the villages of Kahrizeh Ayoubi, Baghlujeh, Hubaki and Shahrikand, became important as endowments for the Red Mosque in Mahabad (Yousefi And Khalili, 1395: 227).  Written evidence such as documents and tombstones as archeological findings show that the family and descendants of Abdullah Beeg, son of Budaq Sultan, such as Ahmad Beeg and Quj Beeg, during the reign of Muhammad Shah (1263-1251 AH) and Nasser al-Din Shah Qajar (1264-1313 AH) in Turjan builds a mansion, mosque, karez, etc. (Samadi, 1373: 206; Shamim, 1387: 143). The necessity of conducting this research is due to the fact that so far no coherent and comprehensive study has been done in relation to the Qajar cemetery of Turjan Saqez village. In the present article, which was done by field studies and descriptive and analytical methods, The motifs and arrays on the tombstones of Qajar Cemetery in Turjan were described, classified, designed, documented and analyzed. The result of this study confirms that the historical cemetery of Turjan belonged to the Quoj Beeg family and people with a high social status in the Mukrian region.   Discussion The historic cemetery of Turjan, which is still used by the residents of the village of Turjan, is located on a high and high hill in the southwest of the village, next to the dirt road leading to the agricultural lands. So far, no studies have been conducted on the historical cemetery of Tarjan. Afkhami is content to bring only a picture of the tomb of Mula Ali Ghezelji, a lecturer at the Turjan Mosque, in the book “History of Culture and Literature of Mukrian, Buchan”. Which is now completely gone. Salimi and Solhjoo have also pointed out the importance of Turjan cemetery. In general, Sheikh Vesu Cemetery has 10 historical tombs, among which 8 tombs belong to the Quoj-Beeg family with magnificent conical tombstones, such as the villages of Gardiglan Saqez and Pirbadin Bukan. In addition to these graves, the graves of other influential people such as Mula Ali Ghezelji, Sheikh Vesu, etc. were in Turjan cemetery, Which now has no trace of their original and historical structure. As it is obvious, the sculptors have been careful in choosing the stones to have the mountainous climate of the region such as Turjan. As a result, the sculptors have used the travertine mines of Zanbil village, 6 km away from Turjan. Undoubtedly, calligraphy has been one of the most important decorative subjects and the most obvious means and factor of art. The lines used in Turjan inscriptions include; Nasta’liq and Sols. To popularize their works and the connection between art and religious beliefs, the artists of Turjan tombstones have used images and lines and drawn the tip of the pen on the lifeless stone and given it spirit and freshness. The tombstone motifs of Sheikh Vesu Turjan cemetery can be divided into three groups: plants, geometric and inscriptions. Inscription motifs are engraved on the tombstones in three parts: header, text and margins.   Conclusion The historical cemetery of Sheikh Vesu is one of the most important Qajar cemeteries in Kurdistan province, which has a total of 17 tombstones (belonging to 10 people) with inscription, plant and geometric motifs. Among the 10 deceased in Turjan Cemetery, two tombs belonging to Abdul Rahman Beeg, son of Imam Qoli Beeg Jalaladin and Mohammad Sharif, do not have much causal relationship with the other 8 deceased, including the Quj Beeg family. The tombstones of Sheikh Vesu Cemetery are decorated in a conical shape of three parts: header, text and margins with geometric, plant, motifs and inscriptions that are comparable to the examples of Pirbadin village. Bolaghi Armenian, Haji Kand Bukan and Gardiglan Saqez and the architectural decorations of the study area. Hajj Tarjani artists have used travertine ores in the construction of tombstones and, like in other parts of Iran, have used the poems of poets such as Abolsaid Abolkhair, Saadi and Jami to learn and learn lessons. On the tombstones of people like Quj Beeg and Mohammad Rashid Beeg, poems have been written that were probably written by local poets and the court of Quj Beeg. In general, based on studies on Turjan tombstones and written evidence, it can be concluded that Turjan gained political and military importance in the late Safavid era due to its border position between Mukrian and Ardalan Kurdistan.

Brick is one of the most important and efficient materials since ancient Iran to the Islamic period. It has always played a significant role both in the construction of buildings and in their appearance. During the Seljuk period, brick grew so much that it was used to decorate many buildings and its various methods of brickwork were invented to decorate the appearance of buildings in a brilliant way. After many ups and downs, brickwork was widely used again in the Qajar and Pahlavi dynasties, and another brilliant new period was formed. During this period, brick were amazingly used to fulfill a dual purpose, both decoration and construction in many buildings. Therefore, in this study the main purpose is a visual study and social factors affecting the brickwork decorations of the Qajar and Pahlavi buildings in Tehran. So the question is: what are the brick decorations of Tehran buildings during the Qajar and Pahlavi dynasties and what are the social factors affecting it? The research method is descriptive-analytical and data collection is based on library studies, especially field studies (viewing samples and photographing them). According to studies, the architectural decorations of this period are influenced by three main factors; 1-Decorative elements of Islamic art of previous periods (eslimi, dragon, Qatar-bandi, geometric motif, lattice, Gol-chin, Raj-chin, scales); 2-European ornaments (floral and embossed ornaments, European Acanthus, Venetian dentil, Festoon, Foliate, vase); 3-Decorations of ancient Iran (Persian Acanthus, Palmette, lotus flower, meandr, winged angel, human battle with mythical creatures, crown and feathers, stairs, symmetrical arrangement of birds, eagle). Some motifs mixed together beautifully and these combinations not only weren’t distorting, but also in some cases created unique embellishments represented the independent identity of the designs. Moreover, Qajar brickwork is more decorative than Pahlavi brickwork; However, Pahlavi brickwork shows deeper meanings due to the spread of ancient nationalism. Keywords: Architectural Ornament, Qajar and Pahlavi Art, Brickwork, Brick Motifs. Introduction During the almost 250 years of the capital of Tehran from Qajar until now, many changes have taken place in the urban landscape. Since architecture and its decorations are among the arts that are directly related to human beings, it is obvious that social influences and developments are manifested in them hence decoration of buildings reflects the current social changes at the time. After nearly a thousand years of brilliant Seljuk brickwork, it was widely used again in the Qajar and Pahlavi periods, and has a crucial role in recognizing the roots of Iran’s cultural and artistic identity. Therefore, studying and recognizing brick decorations in the Qajar and Pahlavi dynasties is very important and it is feared that many of these works will be destroyed in the process of improvement and growth of urban planning and with the construction of modern buildings. Therefore, in this study, an attempt has been made to preserve it as a valuable heritage as part of Iran’s identity at that time and its main purpose is a visual study and social factors affecting the brickwork decorations of the Qajar and Pahlavi buildings in Tehran. So the question is: what are the brick decorations of Tehran buildings during the Qajar and Pahlavi eras and what are the social factors affecting it? The other questions are: What parts of the buildings have been decorated? And what are the differences and commonalities of the Qajar and Pahlavi’s brick decorations? This research is applied one in terms of purpose and instead of generalizing the findings; it seeks a deep understanding of the studied phenomena. Therefore, it has been done with a qualitative (purposeful) approach. Sampling in this paper is sequential and the snowball method is used. In this regard, firstly, the buildings that have a national registration number ,which were identified by the Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism, are used; secondly, since not all samples are known, with the help of experts, written sources and especially field studies in the old areas of Tehran, other samples were identified. The process of searching for samples continued until there was not any new decoration in existing samples. The studied buildings are from districts 1, 2, 6, 7, 10 to 14 and 16. The number of samples is 168 buildings; the highest frequency is related to the old districts 11 and 12. The research method is descriptive-analytical and data collection is based on library studies, especially field studies (viewing samples and photographing them).   Identified Traces Some significant influences affected Iran construction since the time of Fath Ali Shah Qajar, from which society, culture and art were greatly changed. Three of these are as follows: European culture and art, ancient Iran culture and art, and the continuation of past traditional-Islamic art and culture (Keshmir Shekan, 2015, 11). European influences expanded greatly in the Naser al-Din Shah Qajar period with the expansion of contacts with Europeans through ambassadors, students, merchants, artists, etc., and had profound effects on all aspects of the country, especially art. Ancient Iran influences began since Fath Ali Shah from the masterpiece works of Shiraz, where he spent his time as prince, but reached its peak in the last few years of the Qajar period and the first Pahlavi period. Hence, the people who had expressed the concerns about having a national identity support and tried to rejuvenate it. Architectural decorations also had these developments. According to the samples found, Due to the spread of extraversion in architecture, brickwork decorations are often used in the appearance of the building. These decorations are used around doors and windows and pediment, columns, facades, walls, minarets, balcony floors, inside pediment, roof and roof protections. In this research, brick motifs of Qajar and Pahlavi dynasties in Tehran were categorized as margins, decoration of walls, Single elements, and lattice works. The motifs found in the brickwork are as follows: 1- Elements of European art (motifs: floral and embossed ornaments, European Acanthus, Venetian dentil, Festoon, Foliate, vase); 2- Decorations of ancient Iran (motifs: Persian Acanthus, Palmette, lotus flower, meander, winged angel, human battle with mythical creatures, crown and feathers, stairs, symmetrical arrangement of animals and birds facing or back, eagle), 3- Decorative elements of Islamic art of previous periods (motifs: Eslimi, Dragon, Qatar-Bandi, Geometric Motif, lattice, Gol-chin, Raj-chin, scales).   Conclusion According to studies, the brick ornament of Qajar and Pahlavi periods are influenced by three main factors- European architecture ornaments, ancient Iran art, and traditional-Islamic art. European architectural elements since late Nasser al-Din Shah Period and the ornaments of ancient Iran since Ahmad Shah period (which indicates the desire to connect with the artistic identity of those great ancient governments), influenced brick decorations and continued until the end of the first Pahlavi period. Moreover, the decorations of traditional-Islamic art continued equally during the Qajar and Pahlavi periods. Firstly, European brickwork was copied, but gradually since the end of Ahmad Shah’s period it was combined with the traditional-Islamic art and ancient Iran art beautifully. Therefore, not only wasn’t the mixture of them distorting, but in some cases, those unique embellishments represented the independent identity. It is obvious that it is impossible to draw a clear line between the characteristics of brickwork in the Qajar and Pahlavi periods, because the developments are very gradual, but in comparison, there is not presence of lotus flowers, human battle with mythical creatures and stairs in the motifs of the Qajar, but one example of a dragon was found which were affected by traditional-Islamic art. At the beginning of the first Pahlavi, motifs like Foliate, Festoon and European acanthus leaf used a lot alongside of others, but the vase pattern was declined. All in all, it can be said that the period of Ahmad Shah and specifically the first Pahlavi period the decoration of brickwork were gone beyond in terms of decoration and have many meanings and symbols, so brickwork was used not only as a decoration, but also as a medium for conveying concepts and values. Moreover, It is important to say the motifs are altogether used on the appearance of buildings- around doors and windows and pediment, columns, facades, walls, minarets, balcony floors, inside pediment, roof and roof protections.