Advances in Cognitive Sciences
Year:2004 | Volume:5 | Issue:4|Papers Count:20

Objective: To study the development of metamemory (MM) and memory behavior (MB) among the normal students at first, third, and fifth grades of the elementary school, and first and third grades of the guidance school.Method: Assessment of MM and MB was performed in five antonym task characteristics (type of concept): emotional-non-emotional, single-compound, concrete-abstract, with conceptual relation-without conceptual relation and dynamic-static concepts. From each school grade, 50 participated in this study (25 boys and 25 girls). Based on the abovementioned five antonym task characteristics, five subtests were devised and each subtest was applied to 10 persons at each grade to nullify the experiment effect. Each subtest was used at 2 steps: first to measure MM, and then MB. Results: The correlation between MM and MB was often a low or very low positive association and at times it was a moderately to strongly positive. The relationship between MM and MB was influenced by age and the task variable. The MM accuracy and MB ability improves with age. The MM accuracy was influenced by the task. In the girls, the MM accuracy and MI ability were better than the boys. No significant relationship was found between the MM and MB and the participant's academic achievement. Conclusion: There is no persistent relationship between MM and MB. The present controversies among different studies on MM and MB, and the challenges call for further investigations.

Objective: This study compared the novelty effect in the elderly with left frontal and left temporal lobe brain lesions with two groups of normal elderly and normal youths. Method: Two tests were performed: in the first test, 3 probands with brain lesion, 10 normal elderly and 10 normal youths; and in the second test, 30 normal elderly and 30 normal youths were compared. The test instrument was the list of words and phrases (6 blocks). The test was taken in two steps for intentional learning and un-intentional learning. Results: The individuals with the left temporal and left frontal brain damage did not show the novelty effect, but the effect was observed in the normal elderly probands; that means the patients with brain damage do not recall the novel items better than familiar ones. Comparing the normal elderly with the normal young participants we found out that the novelty effect was more prominent in the youths. That is, the young individuals can recognize novel verbal information better than familiar information and there was a significant difference between the novelty effect performance in the young individuals and the old. Conclusion: These findings support the novelty encoding hypothesis and the presence of specifically allocated brain areas to the novel information. It also shows that the novelty effect is significantly prominent in the young.

Objective: To compare the coping strategies in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar-I-disorder (BID). Method: Ninety-nine outpatients with schizophrenia or BID that were in "partial remission" were consecutively recruited for this cross-sectional study. The Coping Strategies Questionnaire which includes five coping strategies of denial, internalization, externalization, emotional outlet and anger was completed for all the participants. Results: The average coping strategies in two patient groups showed no significant difference in quantity and type of coping, but a significant difference was found between two genders regardless of their axis I diagnosis. The female patients showed a remarkable trend towards using more coping strategies than the males. Conclusion: This study suggests the necessity of considering the particular ways of coping in different diagnostic groups. The importance of incorporating the coping strategies in the clinical formulation is also stated.

Objective: This study aimed at developing the Persian version of time estimation, time reconstruction, and estimation of delay tests, and their validation among a group of high school students. Method: Eighty-six high school first-grade students were tested for time estimation, time reconstruction, and estimation of delay using the devised instrument (the Persian version). Results: In this test of estimation, at the stage of the proband's unawareness about the type of the test, the 8-second range was underestimated as 7.33±0.664 seconds (confidence interval =95%); and was overestimated to 9.65±0.431 seconds after the proband was asked to pay attention to the elapsed time. During the test, 5 seconds was estimated as 6.2, 8 seconds as 7.53 and 11 seconds as 9.73. At 23 seconds, the underestimation was 26%. Almost the same results were obtained in the tests of time reconstruction and estimation of delay. Conclusion: According to the current study, for all the 3 functions of time estimation, time reconstruction, and estimation of delay, and based on the hyperbolic logics at wider time ranges the validity of the range decreases and the rate of underestimation and under-reconstruction of time increases.

Objective: To investigate the dysfunctional beliefs and thought-control strategies used by the individuals with non-clinical obsessive-compulsive disorder (i.e. no history of seeking medical care for their obsessive-compulsive disorder (QCD)) in comparison with normal individuals. Method: The participants in this cross-sectional study were 30 people diagnosed with QCD based on DSM-IV criteria, and 30 normal people. All the participants were tested with the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS) and the Thought Control Questionnaire (TCQ). Results: In all sub-scales of the DAS (except for the Effecting sub-scale) as well as in the total score, the non-clinical QCD participants scored significantly higher than the control group. In other words, the QCD group had more dysfunctional attitudes than the control group. Also, the results on thought-control strategies showed that the QCD people used punishment, worry, re-assessment and social control more. Conclusion: These findings imply that the individuals with non-clinical QCD may use irrational thoughts and non adaptive strategies, when faced with obsessive thoughts and actions.

Objective: To investigate the effects of different pengrip styles on legibility, accuracy and speed of writing in the second-grade primary school students. Method: A group of 120 boys at the second-grade of primary school in Tehran were selected and evaluated for laterality and school performance. These students were divided into 3 groups of pen grip styles: a) dynamic 3-finger grip, b) 4-finger grip, and c) other styles of pengrip. Then, a handwriting legibility checklist, Beery Visual Motor Integration Test (VMI), a vigorimeter and a chronometer were used for assessing legibility, writing accuracy, grip power, and speed of writing, respectively. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistical methods. Results: The results showed that different pengrip styles did not differ regarding their effect on the legibility, and speed of writing. However, they differed in their effect on the writing accuracy and the students' strength of handgrip of. Conclusion: The students in group A were better in writing accuracy, and the strength of hand grip as compared with the two other groups. However, the 3 groups were the same in the legibility and speed of writing.

Objective: To assess the pattern of substance use disorder (SUD) in adolescents with and without history of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Method: In this case-control study, patients were consecutively recruited from referrals to Roozbeh Hospital or the Juvenile offender Center who met the criteria of SUD (based on DSM-IV-TR). They were divided to two groups: with history of ADHD (n=33) and without history of ADHD (n= 33). The participants were interviewed by a child psychiatrist and the measures included: Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Age Children (K-SADS), Opium Treatment Index (OTI) and Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF).Results: Adolescents with ADHD had an earlier age of starting cigarette smoking; a shorter period between their first-time substance use and substance dependence and abuse; heavier smoking; higher prevalence of drug use; higher use of cannabis, alcohol, herioin and other substances; and more functional impairment. Prevalences of oppositional defiant, conduct, bipolar, obsessive-compulsive and tic disorders were higher in the ADHD group but not significantly. The average number of comorbid disorders was higher in the ADHD group. Also, this average was higher in ADHD plus conduct disorder than the ADHD alone. Conclusion: Early diagnosis and treatment of ADHD could be associated with a better prognosis of SUD in adolescents, and economically will diminish the costs of SUD.

Objective & Method: Over the last two decades the subject of neurotransmitters in cognitive functions has drawn a lot of attention. This article reviews the role of histamine, opioids, adenosine, cholecystokinin, nitric oxide, and glutamate in cognitive behaviors. Results & Conclusion: Numerous animal studies have been carried out so far, on the role of neurotransmitters on learning and memory. The increase or decrease in neurotransmitters' levels, and activation or blockage of their receptors has shown to affect the learning and memory. It is postulated that a network of different neurotransmitter systems can influence learning and memory processing.