PAZHUHESH-E ZABANHA-YE KHAREJI
Year:2006 | Volume:- | Issue:28|Papers Count:13

For many centuries the linguists have almost always studied morphology. But with the advent of Transformational Grammar , syntactic studies and the structure of sentences have earned maximum importance, therefore Sentence was the focus of study until 70s , and from then on , little by little linguists have begun to study the structure of NP, and they have found many similarities between NPs , VPs and sentences . The idea of this similarity has led to many comparative studies. The Empty Category is one of the arguments discussed in sentence structure and pro /PRO is one of these empty categories. This article intends to indicate the existence of pro/PRO in NPs . Comparing Persian and Italian languages we find the same control properties in sentences.

This paper deals mainly with word equivalence in translation of religious texts, its challenges and strategies. It starts with a few definitions of what translation is and then recounts the main components of translation equivalence including word equivalence. Then, the constituents and challenges of word equivalence are elaborated. This research demonstrates the complications that the translator of religious texts faces due to the cultural specifities and differences between the source and target languages. Finally this paper compares and analyzes strategies suggested by well-known translation scholars and eventually synthesizes its own new strategies.

Urdu literature has benefited a gret deal from different languages and literary specimens especially from Persian, Arabic, Hindi, Sanskrit and last but not least from English language and literature. Urdu has drawn inspiration from the above-mentioned sources and has in many cases, made certain modifications in borrowed words and has utilized them keeping in view its own grammar and syntax. It is obvious that poets and literary writers of Urdu having discovered meanings of foreign vocabularies, have at times made certain modifications in them so as to make them understood in a better way. In the present paper effort has been made to analyze the different ways and means through which such modifications have been effected. These modifications have been categorized in five distinct parts and the fifth part which deals with borrowed English words has been further sub-divided into two parts.

This paper examines Edward Said's views on Joseph Conrad as a writer and thinker. Discussing the centrality of Conrad in Said's critical views, the writer suggests that a chronological survey of Said's comments on Conrad can delineate this critic's own intellectual trajectory. That is, an essentially aesthetic concern with Conrad's writings gradually develops into a politically-charged critique of the theme of colonialism and imperialism in his fiction. Ultimately, Said's life-long obsession with Conrad is shown to be related to the fact that Conrad's fiction, better than any other writer's, exemplifies Said's key critical concept of 'worldliness' of texts. In Conrad's case this worldliness is essentially linked, in Said's analysis, to the culture-imperialism nexus manifested in the high cultural form of the novel.

The manner of transferring ethic-bound messages in Iranian and French literature are similar in some areas and different in others. The main similarities are in the way of clarifying the subjects, in which both are based on «argumentative speech» to be more clear. But on the other hand, there is another way in which the writer imposes his thoughts to the readers. This makes the reader see himself under the writer's control, from the very early moment. In this article, attempt has been made to analyze two examples of Persian and French ethic-bound literature (Saadi and La Fontaine) and see if both seem to make their readers believe in what they believe or merely convince them to accept.

Although Latin American Countries are young, they have wealthy and valuable literature. Through investigation of the history of literature in Latin American Countries, we have seen a long list of male writers. The list of women writers, come in this area with great effort and they have contributed as much as men. Although the men have made great efforts to monopolise this area for their own and thus forced the women to silence, yet, the women represent their abilities very well. What is important in this research, is a brief investigation of women represented in Latin American Literature related to pre- colonization of this continent by Spanish conquerors. This representation has confirmed women’s abilities. Therefore, some of the famous women chosen in different periods have been active in poem, prose, story and novel and have left valuable works. With a short explanation, periods of social situation of the women discussed, have been described as parallel to men’s efforts. This research has no Feminist direction, and has tried to introduce the women who are famous in periods literature because of their great contribution.

Close contact between the "time" element and the life of human beings, indicates why Time has been paid attention to in literature. Humans life is under the influence of the time limit defined for them from beginning of their life till until death. Even human emotions can not escape the results of the passage of time: manners like indifference, depression, weakness, forgetfulness, etc. happen to humans only through the passage of time. There's no period of human life independent from the passage of time: From childhood up to adolescence the two co-exist, and from adolescence on-wards the two are in continuous conflict. Hence human are constanthy analysing time in order to detine their existentce, an almost impossible task. Some poets and scholars, as the messengers of human pleasure and sorrow, play a significant role in transformation of thought among people of their time. Among these scholars and artist see we can the French romantic poets of 19th century, who through an eloquent musical language impressive as well as expression, analyze profound feelings and emotions, derived from the passage of time, and reveal some dimensions of the depths of human soul. In this article of this the writer analysis some of their most important works (poems).

The selection of book materials for Spanish courses for foreign students depends on many factors. The main objective of a published book in Spanish does not differ in various countries and there is not a unique idea about teaching it. Therefore, the main subject of this study is to have a different look and use the most recent methods for editing and teaching Spanish L2 to the students who speak Persian language. We will also take in to consideration different problems the Persian students encounter while they are learning this language.

Philosophers were the first people who paid attention to memory, and who tried to identify its characteristics and to give a clear definition of it. However, the pure philosophical outlook left other questions about the capacity of memory in different fields as unanswered. It was then that psychology within philosophy tried to study the place of memory in the process of learning. This scientific study dates back to a century and a half ago. In the last decade, after the doctrines of behaviorisim and the birth of cognitivism, a great evolution occurred in the knowledge of man on the mechanisms of the memory. Following numerous research, the various parts of the brain and memory were identified, like short-term memory, working memory, long-term memory, semantic memory which are all closely related to the process of a foreign language learning. In this article, the role of memory in the process of the foreign language learning will be studied.

In Russian, a word which by itself or accompanied with other words can function as the predicate of a sentence is referred to as a pseudo – predicator. Such words usually cause the subject of the sentence to be in dative case, and if in such sentences a verb as well as a pseudo – predicator is being used, the verb is in the infinitive form. A Pseudo- predicator word can be a noun or an adverb, however, the use of adverbs in this category is more common than nouns. Many Russian Linguists classify pseudo-predicator as a separate part of speech. A parallel construction to this in the Persian Language is the predicative sentence which is constructed of a subject, a predicate and a relative verb. Unlike Russian, adverbs in Persian are never used in a predicator position. Thus, the function of the Russian adverbs when used as pseudo – predicators are sharply different from those of the Persian. Some Linguists, have a wider view of words acting as pseudo– predicators, and categorize a wider range of words under this category, while others have a narrower view of them, and still some others maintain that only adverbs can act as pseudo- predicators in the Russian Language.

Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the system or pattern of speech sounds used in languages. Theories developed in this area of linguistics have either a general or a particular nature. In the latter, the sounds of a certain language are studied with regard to the distinctions they make, their mental and abstract aspects, patterns of phonemes, and their auditory and perceptive features. Methods of studying phonemes differ in different schools of phonology. In the Moscow school of phonology, phonetic transcription is totally separate from phonological transcription. What makes the Moscow school of phonology different from other schools, even from the Saint Petersburg school, is the issue of potential basic, strong position of phonemes in the roots of words and in their derivations whereas in phonetics, phonemes are studied only in their actual positions. Phonemes and their features are defined identically in both Moscow and Saint Petersburg schools with regard to their basic, clear, strong forms but in case of phonological and phonotactic processes they follow different methods and principles. Following the theoretical insights of the Moscow school of phonology, this article deals with the nature of phonemes and their functions, with a focus on the findings of some Iranian scholars.

The study of life and death is the main motif of the works by Ivan Alexievich Bunin. Taking many trips, Bunin, the last classic writer of the Russian literature could create works which are the results of the impacts of those travels. The story of "The Gentleman from San Francisco" in 1915 was written following the author's trips to Egypt, Sri Lanka, Italia via sea and his settlement in Capri islands. Despite its small volume which is one of the characteristics of this genre, the story of "The Gentleman form San Francisco" is about philosophy, history, nature, life, death, ethic, goodness and evil, love, civilization, violations… . The paper first deals with the literary life of Bunin and then to the process of the formation of writing of this story. The story of "The Gentleman from San Francisco" to the conflict of the permanent values such as life, love and the nature with that of secular and transit values. Bunin has been able to introduce the instability and fragile state of the material and mortal values vis-à-vis eternal and spiritual values in a skillful way. Being a surrealist writer, by; using symbols as a tool to express his literary ideas, he has been able to show the tragedy of the contemporary man who is involved in the material life. Reading the story of "The Gentleman from San Francisco", the reader realizes the minor ideas and wishes of the materialistic man vis-à-vis those of the metaphysics.