ARABIC LITERATURE (FACULTY OF LETTERS AND HUMANITIES)
Year:2016 | Volume:7 | Issue:2 |Papers Count:15

Social revivalism and fighting against the stagnation that entangles societies are the main reasons for nation's awakening and their freedom from colonizers and oppressors. The renowned Tunisian poet, Abu al-Qā sim al-Shā bbi, has called for uprising and awakening of people throughout his poetry book and has asked people not to be indifferent about what is going on around them. In this book, numerous revivalist images can be seen that emphasize people's will and volition. The recent uprisings in the Islamic world started from Tunisia in the beginning of 2011. The slogan in these revolutions was often “ People want the fall of the regime” , which shows the central role of people’ s will. Besides, people carried al-Shabbi’ s poems in the form of slogans on banners, an act that reflects the direct or indirect effects of this poet on the recent developments of the Arab world.

The purpose of the present paper is to investigate semantic deviation of the Holy Quran in Amal Donqol's poetry. Deviation is one of the techniques of defamiliarization, and was first introduced by the Russian formalists in 1917. Constructivist attitude toward literary texts and emphasis on the aesthetic aspects of the literary works led Formalists to consider literary language as the main factor in development of artistic creations. From among different types of deviation, semantic deviation has the greatest effect on the theme and has unbreakable ties with figurative language, and so, has a significant role in literariness of the works. Donqol is among the poets who have used the concepts of the Holy Quran in their poems. Contrary to his preceding poets, he does not stop at simple and unadorned adaptations of the Quran text, and always recreates the Quranic concepts in his poems and uses the capacities of the Quranic text to express his intended meaning. Therefore, he is different from his preceding poets in that his treatment of the Quranic concepts is based on creativity and innovation. Donqol sometimes presents a meaning different from the original meaning of the Quran, and at other times, replaces his poetic characters with the Quranic ones and then, establishes the structure of his poems based on the outstanding features of those characters. This way, he uses the semantic deviation of the Quran to convey the realities of his contemporary society.

During King Abbas I era, Dibil Khuzā i set out to defend Shia thoughts, especially the rightfulness of Alavies. He has numerous argumentative poems in favor of the Shia thoughts, on Imamate and caliphate, and on rejection of the claimants' stances. This article intends to find answer for the following questions. First, what are the bases of Dibil's argumentative approach to prove the rightfulness of the Prophet's Family (a)? Second, what are the principles that Dibil relies on to convince his addressees? And third, how the content of the poems has affected Dibil's language and wording? Eloquence and logical reasoning are among the main features of this committed poet's argumentative poetry. The findings of the study indicate that Dibil has used poetry as a political means, i. e. to defend the doctrine of the Prophet's Family (a), and his main concern is to convince his addressees. When discussing argumentative issues, Dibil distances himself from emotion. This indicates his tendency to logical convincing of the addressee.

Rhetoric – which means correspondence of discourse to the conditions of the audience – has always been considered as the manifestation of the Quran’ s inimitability and matchlessness. Accordingly, semantics has been invented to obtain an exact understanding of the different dimensions of rhetoric in discourse in general, and in the Divine Word in particular. This science sets out to inspect discourse since it conveys a connotative and implicational meaning. To this end, it addresses different kinds of discourse, including statement and composition. The latter can be divided into purposive and non-purposive branches, based on the point that if it is uttered to attain a purpose or not. The purposive compositions are highly important in semantics since they convey connotative meanings. Interrogation is one of the most useful types of this composition, which can be frequently found in the Quran, and examination of its connotative meaning is certainly effective on illumination of the Quran’ s rhetoric and inimitability. Investigation of the interrogative sentences of the Quran reveals that only 19 Quranic interrogations have been used in their real meanings, i. e. to know the answer. The remaining majority of the interrogative sentences have been intended to convey figurative meanings like refutation, admonitory denial, tacit approval, rejection, surprise, persuasion, and equalization.

Irony is considered as a rhetorical device that is used more frequently than trope and metaphor. Consequently, in spite of all their disagreements in defining irony varieties over centuries, rhetoricians have made significant efforts and have left some conspicuous works about it. Al-Kashā f Al-Zamakhshari commentary is the most well-known source of rhetorical interpretation that is referred to in understanding literary beauties and sublime meanings of the Quran. Due to the great importance of irony in Al-Kashā f commentary, this study intends to examine the concept of irony in this commentary, Al-Zamakhshari's innovations regarding irony, his approaches to express Quranic ironies, and the effects of Al-Zamakhshari's religious beliefs on the discussion of irony. The findings of this study reveal that it is Al-Zamakhshari who has proposed for the first time the difference between trope and irony, irony in single words, and the difference between irony and allusive proposition. Moreover, he has been the first one to use the direct and the indirect approaches to elucidate Quranic ironies. Finally, his Mutazilaist beliefs have had a great effect on his discussion of irony. That is to say, he has considered some of the ironic images of the Quran that has been contrary to the Mutazila principles to be trope, allegory, or imagery.

Mamdū h Adwā n (1941-2004) is a contemporary Syrian poet who has vastly used traditions in his poems and has tried to express his ideas and stances toward Arab world's current problems in a symbolic way and through traditional characters. Mamdū h Adwā n is known as a poet committed to his country and people, and so, he considers expression of problems and provision of solutions as the highest concerns of his poems. Consequently, in order to express these issues and provide solutions, he recalls traditional characters, and since the majority of his addressees are laymen, he deems the prophets as the most appropriate characters to bear the foregoing responsibility in his poems. Prophets are the famous and trusted models of the hard times, and so, are the best shelters. It is stimulating that three divine prophets, namely Josef, Noah, and Moses (a), are mentioned and used as a source of inspiration in Mamdū h Adwā n's poetry. By recalling the characters of these prophets, he praises uprising and revolution and expresses his dissatisfaction with muteness against tyranny. He considers his mission the same as the prophets': to guide people toward freedom from tyrants. The article at hand aims at inspecting this recalling of the three aforementioned prophets in Mamdū h Adwā n poems. It also intends to examine the implied real-life examples of these characters and the poet's method of recalling them.

Homonymy, along with synonymy and contraries, is an important semantic discussion that has been studied and variously defined by linguists in the past. The contemporary linguists believe that in studying homonymy, one should differentiate between the two terms of “ polysemy” and “ homonymy” . In homonymy, two lexical words may accidentally come to have a unified conjugational structure; they have similar pronunciation and written form, but each of them maintains its different meaning and has no semantic relationship with the other one. For instance, the word "al-Khal" has three meanings, namely mole, maternal uncle, and hill. In other cases, there is no relationship between the roots of the two words. For example, the word "Qā nic" has two meanings, namely satisfied and beggar, where the former is taken from " Qaniă n" and the latter from " Qunū ă n". Conversely, in the polysemy phenomenon, one language unit comes to entail several meanings after it undergoes meaning changes over time. An example is the word "Sayyā rah", which was used as caravan in the past, but today is used as car. This article intends to investigate and analyze these two phenomena. Moreover, it examines the differences between homonymy and polysemy, the ways to distinguish them, and the manner of their advent into the Arabic language.

The immense extent and richness of Arabic lexical resources which bring about a great semantic extension, emerge in different ways, one of which is sobriquet. Arabs used “ Alam” (proper noun) in three different forms, namely sobriquet, nickname and noun. In certain cases and due to rhetoric and semantic reasons, Arabs used sobriquet instead of noun or nickname. Gradually, this application became widespread and percolated into animal and object realms. The introduction and analysis of animal sobriquets can help us understand Arabic texts and translate them accurately. Besides, it can provide semantic principles of articulating animal sobriquets. The sobriquet discussion has been presented as one of the main discussions of Arabic grammar and significant works has been composed on human sobriquets. Nonetheless, the main concern of this study is to fill the gap in the animal sobriquets and its semantic reasons. The present study has been conducted using a descriptive-analytical method, and seeks to confirm that establishment of sobriquets in Arabic language is due to certain semantic reasons. This includes reference to marriage-driven relationships, existential reasons, originality, concomitance, public beliefs and opinions, myths, etc.

Arabic language instruction in Iran has always relied on cognitive factors, and has been based on grammar-translation method. Consequently, issues such as Arabic learner's and teacher's mental processes during learning and teaching, metacognitive factors, interlocutors' characteristics and the conversation setting, learner's information processing procedure, etc. have never been noted by the experts of this field. Through an analysis of the features of Arabic language learning process based on Desuggestopeida method, as well as an inspection of the metacognitive factors such as emotional intelligence, the authors of the present article seek to provide a set of fundamental principles for learning and teaching of the Arabic language, in a way that using the suggested solutions, the learner could obtain the linguistic knowledge in a practical manner, and through creation of motivation, creativity, self-esteem, and production of constant and practical linguistic output in an emotional-cognitive atmosphere, her communicative competence and performance can get to the highest possible level.

Returning to the human heritage is one of the most important concerns of the world's contemporary literature. In this regard, T. S. Eliot's objective correlative was highly welcomed by the contemporary poets of the world, especially Arab ones. This theory entered into the domain of Arabic poetry and literary criticism under the title 'persona'. Persona is one of the modern ways of symbolization in which feeling and poetic experience of the poet is transferred to the reader in addition to the transfer of thought. When persona is used, due to the unification of the Persona's voice and that of the poet, a conflict arises in the reader's mind due to his inability to differentiate between the voices of the persona and the poet. This process leads to the participation of the addressee in creating literary works. In this article, after introducing persona as a rhetorical device, the personas of "Orpheus, Odysseus, Noah, and Mahyar Dameshqi” are descriptively inspected in Adonis' (Ali Ahmad Said's) poetry. Adonis has borrowed these personas from Greek myths, Islamic culture, and Iranian culture, respectively. Each of these personas, especially that of Mahyar Dameshqi, represents a particular experience in Adonis' life. The present article shows that one of the ways Adonis interacts with the human tradition and legacy is his use of persona as a rhetorical device.

If we take Ibn Malik as the connecting chain of the interconnected history of syntax, we will find him among the last analytic scholars and theorist grammarians, since in his era, the principles of syntax has been established and grammarians didn’ t provide new ideas. But discussion of Ibn Malik’ s innovative syntactic approaches is important because of two reasons. Due to his authoritative position and deep understanding of the syntactic issues, Ibn Malik succeeded in accumulating the syntactic views of Basra, Kufa, and Baghdad schools of grammar, and in settling the disputes over syntactic issues. On the other hand, due to his great mind and vast knowledge of Arabic vocabulary, Arabic discourse, and rare Readings of the Quran, as well as his reliance on traditions and audition, he could get the same syntactic results achieved by the scholars of Basra school. Studying Ibn Malik's syntactic approach is also important from a third aspect. In addition to Quranic verses and old poems, he used the prophetic traditions as a source of syntactic evidence, while it was disputed among the grammarians that if traditions could be used as so or not.

No doubt that the simultaneous interpretation is one of the most difficult types of translation. This type of translation, which is sometimes called oral translation, has many challenges that are familiar to and tangible for the translators. These challenges can be examined in two grounds; first, the content and mechanism of translation, and second, the translator himself. Although translators can overcome some of these challenges by practice and accumulation of experience, the field of oral translation is presently in need of theoretical discussions that provide guidelines, principles of success in this type of translation, and expert translators' experience in a clear and practical way for novice yet interested translators. Consequently, in this study, the nature of simultaneous translation, its characteristics and challenges, and the necessity of carefulness in this type of translation are explained. Then, the necessary prerequisites and capabilities of the simultaneous interpreters are specified, and some other conditions accompanying the simultaneous interpretation that translators may face are mentioned. Finally, some practical principles and practices for success in simultaneous interpretation are mentioned.

The polysemy and lexical similarity of the linguistic structures may lead to ambiguity in the speech and latency. But since a language needs to be away from this deficiency so as to be functional and useful, it needs to be cleansed from such meaning latencies based on the available indications. One indication that can be categorized among the verbal indications is the sentence intonation. By changing and altering sentence intonation, a single sentence can provide different meanings, or its structure can be distinguished from other structures that have similar lexicon. This is because every sentence, according to the situation in which it is expressed, is uttered with a certain intonation and that intonation would distinguish it from the structures that look similar but has different meanings. Since the Holy Quran entails numerous cases where similar structures have different or multiple meanings, this study has first introduced the concept of sentence intonation and its functions in language, and then has tried to examine the necessity of noting sentence intonation role in formation or specification of the meanings of the Quranic verses.

Epic is the poetic narration of heroes' prowess and gallantry in quest of a great desire through a noble style, which has a symbolic structure. Arabic literature has not been familiar with Epic genre in its real meaning due to several reasons, including the lack of a deep imagination and insight, a tendency to adopt imitative styles, and the lack of a unique and all-inclusive nationality. Lack of a lengthy epic masterpiece in the old Arabic literature urged the contemporary Arab poets and writers to fill this gap. Therefore, they started composing epic poems, including Islamic epics. Islamic epics, which are based on the Islamic-historical events, are narrative poems in the form of didactic poetry that depict history of the early days of Islam and its events. Some researchers believe that encountering Western culture and development of nationalistic thoughts in the Arab world led classic poets to find interest in this type of literature, though other political, social and cultural events have been also effective. One of the outstanding Islamic epics is Ahmad Muharram's "Majd al-Islam", where he uses Quranic words and phrases to compose a great and remarkable epic, one which has truly come to be called by critics as "al-Elyazah al-Islamiyah ". In addition, Ahmad Shawqi's " the States of Arabs and the Great Men of Islam" and Bules Salamah's "Eid al-Ghadir" enjoy epic elements and features more than any other Islamic epic does, and so, are considered among the top Islamic epics.

The Holy Quran is one of the main fountainheads of Hā fiẓ idiolect and thought. Hā fiẓ s’ sweet poetry is, indeed, intertwined with the Good Tree of Quran. The assumption in the present study is that 183rd sonnet of Hafiẓ , beginning with ‘ Last night at dawn… ’ implicitly yet purposefully echoes the story of Jonah in the Holy Quran. When words such as ‘ grief’ , ‘ deliverance’ , ‘ darkness’ , ‘ gratification’ , ‘ patience’ , ‘ candy’ , etc. are juxtaposed with such mystical ideas as ‘ the mirror of beauty attributes’ , ‘ swoon at the radiance of His Light’ , ‘ deliverance from the tragic bonds of time’ , etc. they indicate that firstly, in composing this sonnet, Hā fiẓ is inspired by the story of Jonah, and secondly, readers will come to a deep understanding of the sonnet if they refer to the noble Quranic verses. Using a descriptive-analytical method, the present study suggests that there is an implicit yet purposeful association between the 183rd sonnet and the Quranic story of Jonah (a). Moreover, the study reveals that the lines of this sonnet are organically interrelated, and they portray a specific theme in the form of a poem.