Recherches en Langue et Littérature Françaises
Year:2021 | Volume:15 | Issue:27|Papers Count:12

French abstract: La femme et la fé minité en tant qu'incarnation de la fertilité ont toujours joué un rô le dé cisif dans les mythes, les religions et les formes primitives de la vie humaine; cette caté gorie pré sente dans la litté rature persane sous la forme du culte de la dé esse des femmes iraniennes, dont la plus cé lè bre est l’ arché type d’ Anahita. Selon Jung, la repré sentation subconsciente de cet arché type est due à la manifestation de l'anima. Anima est en fait l'aspect fé minin de subconscient d'un homme qui provient de l'inconscient collectif. Cette recherche se donne pour tâ che de familiariser le lecteur avec la thé orie des arché types de Jung, en particulier l'arché type de l’ anima dans les poè mes de Shamlou. Donc, nous analyserons d’ abord la totalité des thé ories de Jung sur la fé minité et les arché types, puis nous examinerons la fonction de l'anima dans les poè mes de Shamlou. En considé rant des conditions sociales, culturelles, la personnalité et la vie du poè te, la question que se pose cette é tude est de savoir comment et dans quelle mesure l’ arché type de l’ anima est utilisé dans les poè mes de Shamlou et quelles sont les diffé rentes formes de l’ arché type de la fé minité et ses aspects positifs et né gatifs dans ses poè mes. English abstract: Woman and femininity as the embodiment of fertility have always played a decisive role in myths, religions and primitive forms of human life; this category appears in Persian literature in the form of the cult of the Iranian female goddess, the most famous of which is the archetype of Anahita. According to Jung, the subconscious representation of this archetype is due to the manifestation of the anima. Anima is actually the feminine aspect of a man's subconscious that originates from the collective unconscious. The task of this research is to familiarize the reader with Jung's theory of archetypes, in particular the archetype of the anima in Shamlou's poems. So, we will first analyze all of Jung's theories on femininity and archetypes, and then we will examine the function of the anima in Shamlou's poems. Considering the social, cultural personality and life of the poet, the question posed by this study is how and to what extent the anima archetype is used in Shamlou's poems and what are the different forms of the archetype of femininity and its positive and negative aspects in his poems. Carl Gustave Jung, Swiss psychiatrist and psychologist defined a special division for the human psyche: the “ conscious part” and the “ unconscious part” . In the human conscious psyche everything is examined and measured, but the conscious part relates to the deep and hidden layers of the mind. The subconscious part is stable, but the conscious part is weak; therefore, the root of all behavior must be studied in the subconscious. Jung believes that the subconscious mind is made up of two parts, individual and collective. The collective subconscious contains wonderful themes and symbols called the primordial form or example. It should be added that the unconscious includes repressed and inaccessible aspirations that the mind attracts to this deep part, either because it does not consider them as desirable or does not feel the need for them. The projection and reflection of these failed desires are the main roots of artistic, literary and poetic creation. In the collective unconscious, there are the patterns (eternal of the human soul, the images and symbols called archetypes and which form the different aspects of psychic energy). The concept of "archetype" occupies a central place in Jung's research. One of the most important archetypes Jung has studied is that of the anima. Poets and writers use their mental and imaginative forms to create works of art, which are rooted in their anima and reach the conscious layers in their minds, introducing the link between psychology, art and literature. Ahmad Shamlou (1925-2000) was known as "Alé f. Bamdad" and played a leading role in the evolution of Persian poetry versus modern poetry. He is a poet of love and of society. He was born in 1925 (1304), in Tehran. He had a very difficult childhood. Shamlou has a private, disorganized and disturbed life. He married three times. The first with Ashraf Islamié h, the second with Toussi Hâ é ri and the last one with Aï da Sarkisian who played a very important role in Shamlou's success. The reflection of the love and the influence of the anima in Shamlou’ s poems are visible and his attentiveness is beautiful in his life with Aï da. In the collection of poems L’ Air Frais, Shamlou's life with Tusi Haeri can be examined. Well, these poems about love have a degree of maturity; for example, De la blessure du coeur de cher Amâ n is a poem in which the presence of love is bold, even in the memory of a martyr of the Turkmen people, but the main purpose of the poet is to describe the love and fascination of a girl from the plain. This poem can be a direct influence of the poem on the sensitive expression of the poet. In Shamlou's first poems, the woman is full of her classic images. In fact, because he had two unsuccessful marriages, the pursuit of the aspiration to find an aide in the form of a woman or to paint the imaginary image of a woman like any of his last loves. The traces of anima in L'Air Frais can be seen in the poems of Gol Kou, Roxana and the winds, which are a clear symbol of the picture of the ethereal woman of the poet's soul. According to Shamlou, Roxana, with the background of the concept of light and enlightenment, was the name of an imaginary woman who illuminated her path with the power of love. This imaginary woman became real twelve years later in Aï da dans le miroir. In the poems of the collection L'Air Frais, the poet is always desperately looking for his lost anima, and in his poems there is no place for anyone or anything, and he is looking for a love. In his first poems, Shamlou painted the imaginary face of a woman who resembles his lover's face. A lover, superior to all women, burns the passionate lover in the heat of self-fulfillment and remains unreachable. He first called this imaginary woman Anahita, then Roxana. His imaginary Roxana is the embodiment of light, hope and enlightenment, a woman Shamlou has always dreamed of in his poems, but the gap between them remains empty and eternal. His role in the life of a lover is not that of a companion and actor in a scene of mutual love. This imaginary woman is not a symbol of love for the poet, but a savior. It is the destination of love, in a place far from all ills and difficulties. Shamlou's anima is for him the source of love, affection and peace, the image that Shamlou presents in this poem is the same image of his mother and her pure love and her soothing lullaby; Shamlou writes in a poem titled L’ Air Frais. Examining Shamlou's approach to the anima archetype shows the impact of biological and psychological experiences in his life. Undoubtedly, the environment, individual characteristics and social conditions play an important role in the use of this archetype. In fact, the poet used folk models and myths and was able to manifest various anima effects in his poems. The innate image of the woman in the poet's subconscious is formed from all the impressions provided by the woman throughout his life; moreover, the feminine aspect of Shamlou's soul is transmitted to him from his childhood by his mother. So the archetype of the anima in his poem is reflected in the form of an exemplary mother who is represented by themes related to the elements of nature such as earth, water or through images related to motherhood or fertility. Shamlou's pleasant and positive experience and remembrance of his mother led him to make more use of the positive aspects of anima in his poems.

French abstract: La question de l’ hybridité culturelle des auteurs postcoloniaux reste une question difficile à cerner pour plusieurs raisons, historiques, politiques, personnelles, et culturelles. Homi Bhabha dans son oeuvre genè se Les lieux de la culture avait proposé un espace tiers qui plaise aux deux sphè res culturelles qui constituent le total culturel des auteurs en provenance d’ une hybridité postcoloniale. Ce qui n’ a pas, à notre avis, mis une vraie fin à ce dilemme vu la pré sence de la francophonie comme structure postcoloniale d’ aprè s Louis-Jean Calvet, politique postcoloniale d’ appropriation iné gale de la production litté raire des auteurs d’ origine. Edward Saï d s’ y est attardé par deux fois dans ses deux oeuvres majeures, l’ Orientalisme et Culture et impé rialisme. Saï d, en effet, pointe de doigt le dé sir continuel de l’ empire à maintenir son ascendant sur les indigè nes, en é laborant une perspective comparative qui lui sert d’ outil de mesure. La lutte que mè nent ces auteurs postcoloniaux face à cette alié nation politique n’ aboutit qu’ à l’ aune de la mé tropole, nous parlons ici d’ une ré ception conditionné e dans le champ litté raire franç ais. Cette alié nation s’ ajoute à l’ alié nation de dé part de ces auteurs postcoloniaux en faisant leur choix auctorial de s’ exprimer dans la langue des colons. Dans ce pré sent article, deux grands noms nous servent d’ outil de comparaison, à savoir Franz Kafka et Vladimir Volkoff. La primordialité de l’ origine s’ avè re grave dans le cas de Volkoff, un auteur franç ais d’ origine russe, il est toutefois inté gré par naissance comme une figure litté raire de souche, et loin de ses thé matiques litté raires ayant toujours un trait fort avec son origine, il est amplement franç ais bien qu’ il n’ ait souhaité qu’ un statut de « apatride ». Ben Jelloun dans la mê me caté gorie, ne dispose que du titre, qu’ il le veuille ou pas, d’ un franç ais de papier. Cette discrimination litté raire a son histoire à elle seule, c’ est celle de la pé riphé rie. En ce qui de la comparaison avec Franz Kafka, nous avons conclu qu’ il existe une similitude entre Ben Jelloun et Kafka, du fait que les deux ont dû passer par les mê mes trois impossibilité s é tant deux auteurs qui ont trouvé leur vocation litté raire dans une langue qui n’ est pas celle de leurs parents. Nous avions ici recours à l’ oeuvre de Deleuze et Guattari; une similitude avec une ré alité postcoloniale qui s’ ajoute au statut de Ben Jelloun. Nous avons, pour ce faire, proposé ‘ franpé ralisme’ comme né ologisme de convenance, et de né cessité , un né ologisme qui dé crit plus pré cisé ment le contenu de l’ adjectif ‘ francophone’ qui qualifie l’ auteur d’ expression franç aise anciennement colonisé . La transidentité des auteurs francophones fait d’ eux des multitudes qui franchissent les frontiè res canoniques de la production litté raire et qui brisent l’ image dogmatique de l’ auteur monolingue d’ idé ologie figé e. English abstract: In this article, we wish to start from the idea that the origin of hybrid culture’ s authors is being a real obstacle to the reception of their French-language literature within the two cultures and identity spheres shaping their singularity. Writing in the language of the settlers was a choice that many second-generation Maghrebi writers have made, Tahar Ben Jelloun in this case, what made of their works on one hand is a deterritorialized literature, and on the other hand, exotic pastiches from the outskirts of the metropolis. Cultural production is considered a foreign element on a national scale. French is indeed the second language in Morocco, but it is not the primary literary language, which means that indigenous production in the language of settlers is not targeting the indigenous community in the first place; it reaches the casual Moroccan reader via the process of translation. This hybrid cultural status does not solely represent the writer individually, but the whole community. In other words, this is a collective postcolonial stance. The reception of this post-colonial production in France is not only conditioned by the origin of an author, but also by his “ genre” : Marvellous Realism, for instance, seems to have access to all French editors. This makes it even harder to publish a work translated in the Arab world without undergoing severe censorship. This auctorial choice made by postcolonial authors comes at a high price, going sometimes to jeopardize to author’ s image in the national sphere, the same way he is held for a stranger ‘ naturalize’ in the metropolitan sphere. France still believes in the superiority of European Francophones over other users of French "from outside", an omnipresent superiority in the awarding system of literary prizes, this disparagement of these works by non-European authors seems to assume a form of neo-colonialism: the Francophonie defined and encouraged all over the world is merely a neo-colonialism for which culture is a first political priority. The cultural transfer carried out by postcolonial authors, either by writing directly in the language of the other, or by self-translating from the language of the other into their mother tongue, highlights the alternation between deterritorialization and re-appropriation by the means of translation of hybrid content, subject to language and literary adaptation. The question of the cultural hybridity of post-colonial authors remains a difficult question to define for several reasons, historical, political, personal and cultural. Homi Bhabha in his Major work the location of culture had proposed a third space that appeals to the two cultural spheres which constitute the cultural total of authors coming from a postcolonial hybridity. In our opinion, this has not really ended this dilemma given the presence of the Francophonie as a postcolonial structure according to Louis-Jean Calvet. This post-colonial policy involves an unequal appropriation of literary production by authors of different origins. Edward Saï d wrote about it twice in his two major works, Orientalism and Culture and Imperialism. Saï d, in fact, emphasizes the empire's continual desire to maintain its ascendancy over the natives, developing a comparative perspective that serves as a measuring tool. The struggle that these postcolonial authors lead in the face of this political alienation only succeeds in metropolitan terms, we are talking here of a conditioned reception in the French literary field. This alienation comes above the original alienation of those post-colonial writers by making their auctorial choice to speak in the language of the settlers. Although Tahar Ben Jelloun, awarded the Goncourt Prize in 1987, is one of the most consecrated authors in the two cultural spheres constituting his hybrid identity, he is still parked in the same status of Moroccan writer with westernizing tendencies from one side, and on the other side of a French-speaking author inheriting an exotic Maghrebi folklore. In the national field, his source of inspiration, Ben Jelloun pursues the colonial mission, and in the other literary field, at the origin of his literary creativity, he is a French-speaking writer with significant acquired capital. In this article, two large names are a comparison tool, namely Franz Kafka and Vladimir Volkoff. The primordiality of the origin turns out to be serious in the case of Volkoff, a French author of Russian origin, he is however integrated by birth and considered as one of the most important French literary figures, and far from his literary themes always having a strong link with his origin, he is largely French although he only wanted stateless status. Ben Jelloun in the same category has just the title of French of Papers, whether he likes it or not. This literary discrimination has its own history, namely that of the periphery. As for the comparison with Franz Kafka, we concluded that there is a similarity between Ben Jelloun and Kafka, due to the fact that both had to go through the same three impossibilities being two authors who found their literary vocation in a language which is not that of their parents. We refer here to the work of Deleuze and Guattari; a similarity with a postcolonial reality added to the statute of Ben Jelloun. In order to put the categorization of postcolonial authors in a more understandable way, we have proposed ‘ franperalism’ as a neologism of convenience, and of necessity, a neologism that describes more precisely the content of the adjective ‘ francophone’ which qualifies the author of French expression formerly colonized. Gé rard Genette, has defined five main types of intertextuality, we estimate that a sixth dimension is needed to frame the postcolonial transgression usually seen as a form of denunciation of double stranded reception policy. A less institutional origin-based criterion would allow diversity and enhance literal integrity for the good of the place of French literary contribution on the international scale. In this article, Ben Jelloun refers to two major literary figures, Albert Camus in his L’ é tranger, and Louis Aragon in his L’ affiche rouge. Both attempts of transtextuality stated in this article expressed a certain identification to one human condition of struggle and resistance; a collective human and political condition that gives birth to a mutual cultural transfer. The achievements of the postcolonial author are now legitimate, the French school in the outskirts has successfully completed its "civilizing" mission and the metropolis is ready to reap the fruits of its cultural seed. Legitimacy granted by the former colonizer whose endorsement is the key to consecration, and of course universalism, this takes, from our perspective, a new form of political influence maintained but this time through Literature. The first indicators of this control are pronounced in the bearer parallels of the Western model in the literary production of postcolonial authors; it is about an enriching cultural dynamism of the literary field of the metropolis, a dynamism which opened, in the case of Rachid Boujedra, a debate on self-translation into Arabic as a means of reappropriating the national literary capital. The transidentity of French-speaking authors makes them multitudes who cross the canonical borders of literary production and who shatter the dogmatic image of the monolingual author of frozen ideology.

French abstract: Le pré sent travail est une é tude phonologique portant sur le point de vue de Pierre Lé on quand il aborde la difficulté de la production des groupes consonantiques du franç ais par les apprenants, en gé né ral, et les iraniens, en particulier, dans son livre Introduction à la phoné tique corrective. La question posé e tourne autour des difficulté s les plus importantes engendré es lors de l’ apprentissage du franç ais langue é trangè re. Toutes les langues ne pré sentent pas les mê mes caracté ristiques ni les mê mes difficulté s et les apprenants de langue maternelle diffé rente et surtout é loigné e, se servent d’ une straté gie simplifiant la prononciation telle insertion d'une voyelle qualifié e de parasite en dé but du mot, au sein du groupe consonantique. Selon Lé on, cette voyelle parasite serait proche d'un /a/ chez les apprenants iraniens. Nous avons vé rifié cette hypothè se auprè s de ces derniers à l’ Université d’ Ispahan, en comparant leurs habitudes linguistiques et la structure du systè me phoné tique de farsi avec ce que propose Lé on. Les ré sultats montrent que contrairement à ce qu’ il dit, dû au phé nomè ne d'harmonisation, cette voyelle n’ est pas une /a/, mais pour des raisons phonologiques elle ressemblerait plutô t à une /e/. Dans certains cas, elle tend vers une /o/. English abstract: In this study, we investigated Pierre Lé on paradigm about the problems in pronunciation of consonant groups in French language which cause the production of a parasite vowel between two consonants in this group as he explained in his book “ Introduction à la phoné tique corrective” . According to Lé on’ s point of view, this vowel is /a/ among Iranian learner's pronunciation. We assessed this concept through our research in Iran at the University of Ispahan. Furthermore, we compared Farsi linguistic habits and their pronunciation structures with what Pierre Lé on says. Finally, in spite of what Pierre Lé on says, our results showed that due to phonologic reasons this vowel is not /a/ but tends to be more /e/, or occasionally /o/. For this purpose, a number of students at the University of Ispahan were tested. It should be noted that all understudied students' mother tongue was Farsi and due to the localization, no students with Turkish, Northern, Kurdish and/or Baluchi mother tongue were among the subjects. Our population in this article is thirty students between twenty to twenty-five years old. To perform the test, Students were suggested to read a text containing words with the desired characteristics and we analyzed their productions. The students were willing to read French words according to universal structure (CV) and at the first syllabus at the beginning of the word they pronounced a vowel between two consonants and even if a vowel was pronounced at the final position, it would be /a/ or /e/. We recommended some words with the desired structure, words that have two consonants at the beginning: trè s, prendre, clair, etc. All foreign language learners must first learn the correct pronunciation of the target language in order to build the next skills on it. Without reading strategies, elementary learners can't enhance their comprehension and reading skills. Learners of a foreign language should learn its pronunciation characteristics, accept its differences and get used to these changes in progress of learning that language. The purpose of this article is to find the intended vowel and learners' strategies when pronouncing these structures. The learner changes the word and pronounces it according to his or her own language structures. This wrong pronunciation gets fixed and fossilized and if not correct at the beginning of learning process, it will remain until advanced levels. We tried to recommend the most popular consonant groups in French to learners. Results show that there is no difficulty in pronunciation of these consonant groups at medial and final positions for Iranian learners. The muscle tension causes the two contiguous consonants to be pronounced firmly and without any intermediaries. In French, this clarity impression is shorter than in any other languages, and unfortunately Iranian learners do not realize this feature at first. Billiè res believes that if learners don’ t hear the target language sounds properly and don't recognize them, they will pronounce them incorrectly, and vice versa. Therefore, it is very important to pay attention to Auditory comprehension from the very beginning stages of learning French and according to the principle of deafness, every person's hearing system works according to the principles of mother tongue from childhood and acts selectively to understand sounds. These structures are mostly common by cons+r and cons+l formulas in French which appear in different positions in the words, for example; trè s, attrait, ê tre. This is the fact that Iranian learners' difficulties in pronunciation of these groups are in initial position, for instance, prendre, trè s, clair, frite. They used to cv(c)(c) structures, they face problems with ccv and cccv structures which is the source of other problems. Learners assimilate target language sounds with native language (mother tongue) sounds and add a vowel sound between two consonants. As Lé on utters this sound among learners is /a/. Due to the fact that the lexical structure in Farsi is different from French. Farsi does not recognize structures with two consonants at the beginning of a word, we observed pronunciation problems in learners. It is observed through learning of these words, Iranian learners inadvertently put a vowel between those two consonants and pronounce the words. As mentioned above Lé on says "this vowel is /a/" but research results show mostly the vowel tends to /e/. Even in some cases, it is seen learner acts according to vocalic harmonization theory, for example even if the word itself has the vowel /o/ added a vowel looks like /o/. Theories show that the cause of these changes is rooted in the very important phonetic properties in French: Muscle Tension or Release. It seems that teacher should remind their students the important role of the muscles in learning French language at the very beginning of learning process so in long time, learners learn the distinguish between muscle tension and release. Also it seems that Economy of Language phenomenon has an important role in the release and learners choose the easiest way to pronunciation which is adding a vowel. It is very important that teacher should remind the important role of the muscles in learning French at the very beginning of learning process so in long time, learners learn the distinguish between muscle tension and release. Intense muscle release and tension make vowels to transfer their characteristics to each other. In fact, the habits of Iranian language and Farsi language cause adding /e/ between two consonants. Lé on says that in pronunciation of these structures in French, it is the muscle tension that makes the vowels clear. There are few languages in the world that know this type of muscle tension and most languages in the world do not know this phonetic system. When phonological convergence occurs, Iranian learner produces the parasite vowel and converts it according to the next vowel in the word. Even in the words that the next vowel is /a/, Iranian learner adds /a/ as parasite vowel between consonant group and it will never be /e/. For example, in the word "clamer" learner pronounces /kelame/ not /kalame/. It should be mentioned that we observed when pr, tr, kr structures exist in the middle of the word, this doesn't happen and true pronunciation will be done, for example; attraper: /atrape/. In other words, when a vowel sound presents at the beginning of the word it helps to consonant group pronunciation. In the case of French words that have entered Farsi since the past, such as pli, Farsi speakers pronounce it in Farsi dialect /pili/.

French abstract: Au 19e siè cle, le nombre de femmes occidentales qui s’ aventurent sur les routes du monde ne cesse d’ augmenter: l’ amé lioration des moyens de transport favorise le goû t des voyages et les femmes qui entreprennent de longs pé riples, seules ou avec leur é poux, ne sont plus rares. Celles dont nous connaissons les aventures sont celles qui ont pris la plume pour é crire le ré cit de leur voyage et n’ ont pas hé sité à le publier. Parmi elles, et dans le cadre des ré cits de voyage en Perse, nous relè verons Adè le Hommaire de Hell et Carla Serena, auteures de ré cits qui eurent beaucoup de succè s en leur temps. A reprendre ces textes à la lumiè re des ré cits de voyage masculins, une question se pose, à laquelle tentera de ré pondre cet article: ces ré cits de voyage ont-ils une spé cificité , ou reprennent-ils les poncifs des ré cits masculins de l’ é poque? Pour ce faire, nous analyserons briè vement et successivement les contenus des textes de ces deux auteures, dont l’ un é crit sous le couvert du nom de son é poux, tandis que l’ autre signe hardiment de son nom. English abstract: During the19th century, an increasing number of Western women travel around the world: the improvement in transportation, due to steam engines, has a strong impact on traveling, and women who are doing so are not as scarce as they should be a century ago. When they come back, some of them publish their travelogue and become very well known. Regarding Persia, and French travelogues, the authors Adè le Hommaire of Hell and Carla Serena, got a high visibility when they published respectively Travel to Turkey and Persia (1854) and Men and Things of Persia (1883). The situation of the two writers is completely different, since Hommaire de Hell, of bourgeois social origin, travels through Turkey, Russia and Georgia with her husband, a civil engineer, who conducts geological prospects. Although she doesn't follow him in Persia where he dies in 1848, she entirely writes his travelogues, basing her narration on her husband's notes and her own experience. Carla Serena, the Belgian spouse of an Italian politician living in exile in London, travels alone for her pleasure but, as a journalist "amateur", publishes her travelogues when back in France. Much more than Hell's Hommaire, she experiences the sheer excitement of lonely adventures. Reading these texts, published under two different political systems (Second Empire and Third Republic) among many questions that rise about the specificity of these travelogues, the most important would be to detect if, especially in theses Oriental travels, the female approach is different from the male one and, if so, which are its characteristics? In other words, does their discourse deal with the imperialist and colonialist speech, usual in that kind of writing, or do they have a gendered approach, feeling closer to Oriental women, in a sympathetic point of view, than to Occidental men? The aim of our work would be to detect an eventual gendered way of writing and describing the Persian realities, especially because our travelers have a possibility to contact women in their own environment. In fact, and chronogically beginning by the work of Hommaire de Hell, we see that Adele feels really closer to Occidental men than to Oriental women. Describing their lifestyles, their dressing at home (which astonishes this French “ bourgeoise” ), she hurls the disregard of the colonialist society the belongs to. Is Carla more open-minded? She travels from London to Egypt, then to Constantinople, Caucasus and finally Persia: on the way to Colchis, she is supported by the logistics of her social relationships in the embassies that ensure her escorts and assistants of all kinds. In Georgia, she decides to free herself from these too many companions, to try to live a solitary experience, in a relative independence. Her journey continues with an expedition to Persia, from Rasht (where the plague is ongoing) to Tehran. "Intrepid and courageous" (Audouard 283), she makes extensive use of her status as a socialite to display a so-called female weakness and the strength of a member of the high society, able to cope with any situation and proud to show this ability to the local populations. As noticed by Isabelle Ernot, and following Bourdieu's theory, women travellers (as well as men) are unable to move beyond their social allegiance: they just cannot have any free sight over the society that they describe, since they are prisoners of the gendered criterias of their own social allegiance. They are also bounded by the point of view of growing imperialism. During the 19th century, some compilations recounting the lives of female European travelers (Cortambert, Dronsart, Chevalier, Audouard) definitely highlight the loyalty of these travelers to the criteria of their own civilization. Adele is described as a perfect traveler, a model of marital devotion (Dronsart 12); of high intelligence and energetic soul (Knight 70), ". . . her books are always those of a soul accessible to the most delicate impressions, to the highest feelings. (Cortambert 214). Admittedly, this look is richer than the male gaze, in the sense that it opens up to places that men do not frequent, highly significant since they are those of the privacy “ the mysterious darkness of harems, zennas, anderuns, tents and boxes” , but in a way of imperialist authority, to follow Dronsart who writes in 1909: “ they lift the veils that hide the faces and souls of so many millions of human beings, to which we have yet to bring only faint rays of light” . These female travelers are, above all, Europeans, bearer of their civilization. The ambient colonialism, the construction of an imperialist norm fully justifies the vocabulary used by Dronsart: the West still believes in its "civilizing" and illuminating mission, (we will raise the militant vocabulary) and in this fight, the role of women writer-travelers is pervasive. Fully embodying the norms and myths of their civilization, they stand out only on rare occasions from Orientalist, racist and misogynistic cliché s. Western women in the East, they are totally making their discourse of imperialist representation: contrary to what they can assume in their own country, they are more, in the East, on the side of men, by the condescension they express towards the Eastern women they meet. In fact, they don't have any kind of empathy towards their so-called "sisters" and they just strengthen the Western stereotypes of cultural domination. In other words, we can give a negative answer to our initial question (is the female travelers' point of view gendered? ). They systematically exclude themselves from the field of gaze. Far from any originality, they reinforce the colonialist discourse by the impact of their stories on the female audience. Key words: Adè le Hommaire de Hell, Carla Serena, Persia, qajar, travelogue, orientalism, woman writer, gender studies, feminism, imperialism.

French abstract: Le pré sent travail vise l’ examen de l’ accroissement du vocabulaire de l’ auteur à travers toute sa production litté raire. Ce travail s’ inscrit dans le cadre de la statistique lexicale. Il s’ agit de dé terminer l’ apport du vocabulaire au fil du temps: pour un segment dé terminé du texte c’ est le nombre d’ unité s nouvelles qui n’ avaient pas é té employé es anté rieurement et qui apparaissent dans ce segment. Cette analyse permet de constater que l’ apport de nouvelles unité s dans la seconde pé riode artistique de l’ auteur (1967-1992) est intense par rapport à celui remarqué lors de la premiè re pé riode litté raire (1938-1967). Aussi, l’ apport lexical à travers l’ oeuvre de Gracq n’ est pas stable puisqu’ il change automatiquement à mesure que l’ auteur passe d’ un genre litté raire à un autre. En effet, on peut constater que la deuxiè me pé riode artistique de notre auteur Julien Gracq est plus riche que la premiè re et qu'elle connaî t aussi un apport lexical plus intense que celui de la premiè re. Le vocabulaire des oeuvres de la seconde pé riode est trè s particulier. Cela é mane principalement du style d'é criture adopté par l'auteur dans la seconde moitié de sa vie litté raire dans la mesure où Lettrines 1 de Julien Gracq a inauguré un style d'é criture qui é chappe à une dé finition classique, il ne semble pas exagé ré de penser qu'il renouvelle une forme d'expression originale qui d'autres é crivains emprunteront aprè s lui. A vrai dire, les oeuvres de la seconde pé riode font partie de ce que nous appelons communé ment la ‘ Litté rature Fragmenté e’ qui se dé finit comme un ensemble trè s libre, une mosaï que de mots pour lire, ré flexions et souvenirs (souvent de l'enfance). English abstract: The present work aims to examine the develop process of author's vocabulary throughout his literary production. This work study the framework of lexical statistics. It is a question of determining the contribution of the vocabulary over time: for a given segment of the text, it is the number of new units which had not been used previously and which appear in this segment. In principle, lexical statistics are mainly based on the notion of frequency. Thus, the frequency of words in lexicometric studies is a dynamic character, as important as their meaning or their phonetic figure: the concentration corresponds, at the stylistic level, to the motivation of the author for such use of a word and the dispersion leads to the characterization and specification desired by the author. These two defined characters are likely to provide criteria for the identification of texts and for the analysis of the stylistic use of words and their expressive value, both in the language and in a particular writer. The effectiveness of lexical statistics is having reliable data on the lexicon of a text; these data are multiple and they can be either digits when it comes to the number of each occurrence of a given text, or percentages which come from the ratio of the number of each occurrence to the set of occurrences of the text, or graphics: representations of a word according to parameters chosen beforehand. All this is achievable by resorting to quantitative statistics, especially the use of the Hyperbase software (developed by Professor Etienne Brunet from the University of Nice Sophia Antipolis in France) which is considered a centerpiece of lexical statistics in recent years. It is then sufficient to submit the computerized literary base to the various functionalities guaranteed by this software in order to have all the necessary lexical quantitative data. Admittedly, the principle of lexical statistics has not changed since its appearance and its position among the branches of linguistics, but we note a great evolution at the level of the processing tools intended for this purpose and in particular the software responsible for this task. In this study we have worked on the entire literary production of Julien Gracq who is one of the masters of contemporary literature in France. Louis Poirier (his real name) or Julien Gracq (professor of geography) was able to mark his writing career without subscribing to any specific literary movement. His literary production, which spanned half a century (1938-1992), encompassed seventeen works and brought together several literary genres, notably literary essays which are richly represented with ten works. Indeed, his production has known two major literary periods: the first period (1938-1967) took surrealism and fiction as a main framework for literary creation while the second period (1967-1992) was focused on fragments of autobiography, reflections on literature and geographic mediations. It is important to underline that the common point between these two artistic periods of the author is the omnipresence of the landscape (fictitious or real) where the edge constitutes for Gracq a springboard which makes pass the intrigue of the story from a closed place (forest or castle), to another open (river or sea). The edge then embodies a climate of expectation or a sort of confused and ambiguous projection into the future. It is to say that, in this work we have to highlight lexical growth or how the vocabulary progresses and regresses through the seventeen works of Julien Gracq which are: (At Argol castle(1938), A beautiful dark ( 1945), Great freedom(1945), The Fisher King (1948), André Breton, aspects of a writer (1948), The Shore of Syrtes (1951), Penthesilea (1954), A balcony in the forest (1958), Preferences (1961), Initials 1 (1967), The peninsula (1970), Initials 2 (1974), Narrow Waters(1976), Reading while writing (1980), The shape of a city (1985), Around of seven hills (1988) and Diaries of the great road (1992). ) The study of lexical growth determines the contribution of vocabulary over time; this increase is, for a given segment of the text, the number of new units which had not been used previously, which appear in that segment. To perform the necessary lexical growth calculations, we need to slice our corpus. In this study, we will adopt a distribution that follows a so-called natural division of the corpus, that is to say that this division is carried out in relation to the number of works that the corpus contains. Therefore, we will study the lexical growth of Gracq's corpus in seventeen slices where each slice represents one of the works of the author's production. Indeed, the various lexicon growth calculations are made by the Hyperbase software. This also takes care of the graphs and histograms that correspond to each lexical calculation table. The Hyperbase software therefore, first of all, performs the normal lexical growth calculations according to the chronological order of the production of each work in the corpus. Then he calculates the lexical increase of the different parts of the corpus by following a reverse chronological order where he takes the last work of Gracq entitled Diaries of the great road as the starting point of calculation and consequently the first work, At Argol castle, will become the last work to deal with its lexical increase. In short, the analysis of the lexical contribution in Gracq's work allows us to carry out the following interpretations: at the beginning, the contribution of new units in the author's second artistic period (1967-1992), which begins with the booklet entitled Initials 1, is intense compared to that noticed during the first literary period (1938-1967) where the increase was above the average except for the significant value of accusation observed in the collection of prose poems: great freedom. Second, the lexical contribution through Gracq's work is not stable since it changes automatically as the author moves from one literary genre to another. Finally, the works in which Gracq describes real landscapes that are encountered during his life have an intense lexical contribution, on the other hand the works that were written within the framework of surrealism are judged to be weak in terms of the contribution of new words. Alain-Michel Boyer in a way justifies our interpretations made at the end of a study of lexical growth through the seventeen texts of Julien Gracq by saying: “ But what strikes the reader of Julien Gracq is the singular evolution of a work which, from book to book, from At Argol castle, published in 1938, to Diaries of the great road, published half a century ago. Later, follows a curve, performs a backward course, which leads from a surrealist writing game to a meditation on Rome and which gives an increasingly important role, not only to spatial configurations, but also to real places. ” (Boyer 35) Also, the lexical contribution through Gracq's work is not stable since it automatically changes as the author moves from one literary genre to another. Indeed, we can see that the second artistic period of our author Julien Gracq is richer than the first and that it also knows a more intense lexical contribution than that of the first. The vocabulary of works from the second period is very particular. This emanates mainly from the writing style adopted by the author in the second half of his literary life insofar as from Initials 1 Julien Gracq inaugurated a writing style which escapes a classical definition, it does not seem exaggerated to think that he renews an original form of expression that other writers will borrow after him. To tell the truth, the works of the second period are part of what we commonly call "Fragmented Literature" which is defined as a very free set, a mosaic of words to read, reflections and memories (often from childhood).

French abstract: Parmi les romans du XIXe siè cle portant le nom de femmes, Nanon, é crit par George Sand en 1871, se distingue par son choix de titre. Par son approche titrologique approprié e, l'auteur dé finit en effet une nouvelle identité fé minine, peu reconnue dans la socié té franç aise à l'é poque. Une identité qui est indé pendante du genre et de la classe sociale et qui ré sulte de l'individualité humaine. Mais la question qui se pose en accord avec cette dé finition identitaire est de savoir si le titre de l'oeuvre, ainsi que le pseudonyme de l'auteur, conduisent-ils à l'unité du protagoniste et de son auteur, ou au contraire, trace-t-il la frontiè re entre ces deux? Et comment chacun de ces é lé ments-la dualité ou l’ identité entre l’ auteur et son hé roï ne-forment l’ horizon de l’ attente du lecteur? Comment un lecteur, confronté à la dualité de l’ hé roï ne et de l'é crivain, parvient-il enfin à ré concilier les deux dans tout le processus de lecture? Cet article pré sente d'abord une analyse dans le domaine de l'anonymat et aprè s avoir examiné la classe sociale dans laquelle vivait l'auteur, tente de repré senter l'image inversé e qu’ elle laisse d’ elle-mê me, dans l'esprit du public. English abstract: Two literary currents were formed in the 19th century. On the one hand, women writers publish their works under male names, and on the other hand, novels are titled by women’ s names. When these two strategies overlap, they lead the public to have a specific reading of the text. Among this type of novel, Nanon, written by Amandine-Aurore-Lucile Dupin, (1804-1876) in 1871, is remarkable for its titrological choices. In the period when women are reduced in their identity to a minimum representation, "lady", "miss" and "Mrs. ", the author publishes her work under a masculine name: George Sand. Many women in the 19th century followed the practice that Sand made fashionable and which will continue to this day. Among these writers, we can remember Marie d'Agoult, Victoire Lé odile Bé ra, Marie Saffray, Jeanne-Caroline Violet, Jeanne Ichard, Angé lique Bourcier, Alice Marie Cé leste Fleury, and many others whose list of names goes beyond the scope of this study but certain is by George Sand this practice becomes fashionable at the time. Through her appropriate titrological approach, the author defines a new feminine identity, little recognized in French society at the time; an identity independent of gender and social class and resulted from human individuality. Rich in the politico-historical side, Nanon contextualizes the pre-revolutionary period, reveals the literary, social, and family aspects of the author's life, and also relates a love between a poor village girl and a nobleman. The story takes place in Berry, the rural region that forms the backdrop for Sand’ s works. The protagonists are caught up in a difficult and sometimes dangerous daily life, but they resist bravely. Emilien, kidnapped by the revolutionary court, is saved thanks to Nanon who disguises himself as a man to free her friend from prison. They take refuge in Valcreux, a deserted land where they await the end of the Terror. The girl refuses to share sexual love with her lover whom she wishes to respect as a brother. This is a feminine novel in which a woman seeks to exist and to fulfill personally herself. The heroine is disguised in a short period as is its creator in all her professional life. This travesty is interpreted, in its romantic form, as the complicity between the character and the novelist, and constitutes the permanent support for a title's reading. But the question that arises according to the identity definition is whether the titles have gender and if so how are they read through titrological sexuality? The author's pseudonym and the novel’ s title, do lead to the unity of the protagonist and its creator, or on the contrary, do they draw the border between these two? And how do these elements-the duality or the identity between the author and his heroine-form the reader's horizon of expectation? How does a reader, faced with the heroine-writer duality, finally reconcile the two in the whole reading process? This article presents an analysis of anonymity studying the name as a paratextual element. Then it proposes a contextual analysis to situate the author in the circumstances which push him towards the transvestite and it tries to represent the author in the public’ s mind. Finally, we challenge the reader's (de)sexualized point of view to discover his aesthetics of reception. In the first part, we treated the title from its nominative function that is what helps to insert the character into the narrative movement of the text. We have shown that the title is stripped of any informative role. But there is still a Sandienne desire there so that the title from the start of reading enters the messaging process. By treating etymologically the first name that titles the novel, we indicated that the text can anticipate anti-sexist content from the beginning. The syllabic divisions of the title in parallel with the pen name that the writer chooses for herself testify to both the whimsical and autobiographical aspects of the work. This twofold aspect can go a long way to guaranteeing the credibility of the story because it lies in the experiences that the writer has had in her private life. Next, we moved on to the relationship that this double name establishes with the Sand’ s ideal for political socialism imbued even with aristocratic tendencies. The devices offered by the titles provide an inverted mirror that reflects the image of the author in the character and they bring two social origins into a political interaction although they are in a paradox. Within this interaction, it will be the role of literature that is called into question. Sand using her false identity defends the aristocracy from which she came, but she does so in an implied way. We went even further by asking ourselves the function of such onomastic strategies in the development of an asexual reading of the text. By the way, the masculine enunciation and the narration that tries to keep a sexually neutral tone denounce the writer's goal of writing such a feminine novel. The quotes we bring back from the novel link the author's opinion on women's effectiveness in all areas, but the author is not very revolutionary in his feminist demands. The absolute negation of the gender division between feminine and masculine traps the reader in a constant judgment of gender discrimination but George Sand walks her path cautiously by giving priority to the correct march of society towards human rather than anti-sexist values. Her attachment to the aristocracy also gives her pen a more reflective look, especially when it comes to describing the revolutionary Republican movements against the Old Regime. This explains his titrological choice for a novel endowed with strong political aspects. Although we are a long way from the age Sand dates back to, the feelings of fear and dread are keenly felt. In the aftermath of the war of 1870 and the Parisian commune, Sand expressed her rejection of the excess of violence which, according to her, hijacked and annulled the Revolution of 1879. With the passage of a popular and manly name, George Sand removes the effect from coquetry to her feminine pen while aiming for a desexualized reading of her work which she has titled in a non-sexist way. The onomastic choice puts the daring writer on the safe side. This security translates to mutual consent in the author-reader relationship when the reader understands the need for such a strategy to invest the reader's mind.

French abstract: Dans cet article, on é tudiera le modè le du ré cit de l'é preuve d’ Abraham. Ce modè le bé né ficie d'un genre de ré cit qui cré e une sorte de conscience et cette derniè re va cré er à son tour une autre narration. On aperç oit cette continuité de cré ation dans La Crainte et tremblement et dans Hamoun. Le premier est un essai du philosophe danois Sø ren Kierkegaard, é crit 1843, qui met en scè ne l’ opposition entre l’ é thique et la foi. L’ é thique se rapportant au gé né ral, la foi joue par contre au niveau personnel. Ainsi Kierkegaard raconte les hé sitations d’ Abraham qui, accompagné de son fils, avanç ait vers Morija où il devait tuer Isaac selon l’ ordre divin. Les parties suivantes s’ occupent de ce mê me thè me mais abordent une aventure diffé rente qui est plus personnelle. En ce qui concerne Hamoun, il s’ agit d’ une oeuvre ciné matographique projeté e 1989 dans lequel le personnage principal, Hamid Hamoun, s’ occupe de la ré daction d’ une thè se intitulé « L’ Amour et la foi dans les religions abrahamiques ». En fait, son but consiste à connaî tre l’ essence de la foi et de l’ amour à travers le ré cit d’ Abraham mais n’ ayant pas abouti à une conclusion pré cise, sa vie personnelle avec sa femme qu’ il aime follement confronte avec des problè mes sé rieux. Aussi peut-on observer la trace du contenu de ce ré cit chez les poè tes iraniens comme Mowlana, Hafez, Khayyâ m etc. En fait, les oeuvres de ces derniers contiennent une sorte d'é loge pour ce grand prophè te. Cette derniè re ré sulte de la conscience humaine qui est entremê lé e du doute. En fait, pour l’ homme ordinaire, l’ é preuve prophé tique se transforme en dé cisions pour les coï ncidences quotidiennes qui nous informent du conflit entre l’ homme et ses choix. Il s’ agit d’ une vé rité qui met en relief le besoin de l’ homme d’ une certitude profonde. En é tudiant les mises en scè ne de Hamoun et la dialectique lyrique de Sø ren Kierkegaard, on essaiera d’ é tudier le cycle infini de l’ existence des personnages confronté s aux circonstances de la vie et le message des ré cits basé s sur l’ histoire de Morija, la montagne dé signé e par Dieu où Abraham devait sacrifier Isaac. Celle-ci constitue la base des autres ré cits puisque là , il s’ agit de la conscience humaine. Et, chacun en profite selon sa compré hension et puis il essaie d’ influencer les autres. A la fin, ce cycle ré pé titif informe l’ homme de cette vé rité qu’ il lui faut sacrifier ce qu’ il possè de pour atteindre un Idé al pré cieux et tout ce qui est sacrifié atteindra une transcendance plus é levé e; qu’ il s’ agisse de son enfant, de son amour ou de sa vie. English abstract: In this article, we will study the model of the story of Abraham’ s trial. This model benefits from a kind of narrative that creates a kind of consciousness and the latter will in turn create another narrative. We see this continuity of creation in Fear and Trembling and in Hamoun. The first is an essay by Sø ren Kierkegaard, written 1843, which portrays the opposition between ethics and faith. As ethics relate to the general, faith plays on the personal level. Thus Kierkegaard recounts the hesitations of Abraham who, accompanied by his son, was advancing towards Moriah where he had to kill Isaac according to the divine order. The following parts deal with this same theme but address a different adventure that is more personal. As far as Hamoun is concerned, it is a cinematographic work projected in 1989 in which the main character, Hamid Hamoun, is in charge of writing a thesis entitled «Love and faith in the Abrahamic religions». In fact, his goal is to know the essence of faith and love through the account of Abraham but not having reached a precise conclusion, his personal life with his wife whom he loves madly confronts with serious problems. Thus one can observe the trace of the content of this narrative among Iranian poets such as Mowlana, Hafez, Khayyam etc. In fact, the works of these latter contain a sort of praise for this prophet. The latter results from human consciousness, which is intertwined with doubt. In fact, for the ordinary man, the prophetic trial is transformed into decisions for the daily coincidences that inform us of the conflict between man and his choices. It is a truth that highlights man’ s need for profound certainty. By studying Hamoun and the work of Sø ren Kierkegaard, we will try to study the infinite cycle of the existence of the characters confronted with the circumstances of life and the message of the narratives based on the history of Moriah. This is the basis of the other narratives. In the divine trial of Abraham, the prophet must sacrifice his son for the will of God. He succeeds; he reaches a higher place grace because he renounced his own desire. By studying the structure of the primordial narrative of Abraham and his trial, we can realize the existence of three fixed elements: man, his guide in the form of his consciousness or of another personage, and the higher force that presents itself in the form of fate or God. In Kierkegaard’ s Fear and Trembling, the philosopher used Abraham’ s narrative to tell his own story so that Isaac is replaced by his earthly love and the philosopher is regarded as Abraham. In the film Hamoun, Shakibaei, who plays role of Hamoun, confronts contemporary times and he strives to preserve at all costs his couple life that she intends to leave. Through the film, all the moments that recalls the beautiful memories of Hamoun with his wife and son show that the happy and pleasant past has turned into a bitter reality. In fact, resignation towards the will of life, forced him to accept reality. Thus, in the eyes of Mehrjouei (the director), God who is the pure truth has transformed himself into bitter and inevitable reality; more precisely God is no longer an abstract concept, He is the grave reality of daily life, therefore, the one, kind and admirable god of Abraham is replaced by tyrannical society, the harassment of conscience and the difference of social classes. In the film, the place of the three elements of the story can change. Thus, it is sometimes Hamoun himself who is the victim. But there is a fundamental difference between this character and Abraham or Kierkegaard. He is not a prophet, nor a deistic existentialist philosopher. He is a man in search of the truth. Sometimes, the other characters who present themselves in the form of a guide are sacrificed. By way of example, we can talk about the character of the mother, the psychologist, his former friend or the lost lover of Hamoun. In addition, we must not forget the role of the innocent child of Hamoun, Ali, who is most similar to Isaac. The list of victims is exhaustive, so we can add an old grandmother who is lost in her religious ideas or a mentally ill person. By studying deeply Fear and Trembling and Hamoun, we can understand that all those who are influenced by the story of Abraham, after having created their masterpiece, had the intention to know like Abraham their satanic aspect but also their prophetic aspect. And, by examining their souls, they were able to know God, to know themselves and thus transmit to the reader or to the viewer the new consciousness. Sø ren and Hamoun were able to find the evil that feeds this existential opposition. And all, even those who have resigned themselves are not faced with failure, for in the face of the certainty they had obtained and that to which they did not yet have access, there was a certain faith. And, this difference has created Fear and Trembling, Hamoun, Masnavi, the Divan of Hafez, Rubaiyat of Khayyam and Mantegh-Ateyr of Attar, and none of these masterpieces will question the validity of the others. Access to the truth of Abraham’ s trial on the part of believers is the beginning of a grave doubt which leads to their identification with Abraham. From the point of view of the man who is passing the test, this doubt is null and fruitless but it is at the same time an obligatory success for Abraham and as for Hamoun and Sø ren, the test brings them a difficult life where the bitter logic of life breaks out. In Abraham, this doubt is shown in the form of the refusal of the son’ s sacrifice or even his own sacrifice, and in Hamoun, this hesitation is present when in search of his friend – his spiritual guide – he asks himself, "what can he do for you? ” , in Sø ren, the doubt is manifested every time he confronts the commitment to his love. Indeed, there has always been a kind of consciousness between God and man that is transformed from an absurd illusion to a real certainty. In Abraham’ s story, this doubt, because of the place of the prophet is represented when he thinks of the temptation of Satan. In Fear and Trembling, Kierkegaard goes beyond limited existence, and as a result, certainty makes him present as a religious philosopher. In Hamoun, the capacities of cinematographic art stage the different moods of the character as an illusion or a mental and spiritual search. Sometimes these images are related to another character like the mother or her friend Ali Abé dini. By crossing his memories in the dream and awakening, Hamoun judges him, is sometimes judged or he is questioned for his actions, his words and his ideas. And precisely at the moment when the trial takes the form of a cycle for the two human characters, namely Hamoun and Kierkegaard, they close their eyes to the earthly world and all the loves that bind them. All the difficulties, worries and sacrifices of those close to us end and the cycle in which God and man find themselves gives all that is necessary to man and takes them up according to circumstances and coincidences. Thus the modified man will be born. In fact, Abraham’ s story transformed with Hamoun and Sø ren or limited to Abraham’ s own prophetic personality, has two results: the first includes the Abrahamic certainty which was formed through the noble human qualities and results in the divine and human presence considered as a serene faith and the second presents man in the context of uncertainty and existential despair. In the second case, man will regain his faith as Abraham or else will continue the limited cycle of his own existence. indeed, Abraham obtained such certainty which seems to be inaccessible to the human being. But the narrative of this narrative alludes to this important remark that man cannot access certainty unless he loses all his attachments because of his choice and because of his commitment to what he has chosen. All these losses are arguments for new varieties. But the passage of this cycle and faith in the happy Abrahamic end is not easy. Like Hamoun who loses his love, his child and his search for the trial of Abraham – in a word, his life – and that he can no longer find them despite their loss and despite faith in his dumb god. In fact, this certainty is obtained completely only in the account of Abraham and for us, humans, it is always incomplete.

French abstract: Depuis l’ introduction de la communauté de pratique (CdP) en sociolinguistique, les travaux y affé rents montrent qu’ elle est d’ un inté rê t analytique non moins né gligeable pour ce domaine du savoir et plus encore en sociolinguistique francophone où on note un grand dé sinté rê t des chercheurs à exploiter ce cadre d’ analyse qui pourrait, et de faç on plus gé né ral, permettre de trouver des ré ponses à certaines questions qui ont fait dé bats en sociolinguistique. Je pense de ce fait à la « communauté linguistique » pour laquelle les dé bats ont tantô t dé bouché sur la communauté sociale, tantô t sur la speech community ou encore sur la communauté ethno-sociolinguistique. Les questions d’ articulation de de cet article sont les suivantes: qu’ est-ce que la CdP? quels en sont ses concepts opé ratoires et comment la sociolinguistique s’ en est servie? Enfin, qu’ est-ce que la CdP peut apporter à la sociolinguistique en gé né ral et à la sociolinguistique francophone en particulier? Cette ré flexion s’ organise autour de 3 principaux axes. D’ emblé e, la pré sentation de la CdP dans le domaine de l’ apprentissage situé et plus particuliè rement dans les sciences sociales. Par la suite, il s’ agira d’ une brè ve exploration des travaux qui, en sociolinguistique, exploitent ce construit thé orique et, enfin, des pistes de ré flexion vers lesquelles on pourrait orienter les recherches à venir sont pré senté es. English abstract: Since the introduction of Community of Practice (CofP) in sociolinguistic, the related works show that it is of no less analytical interest in sociolinguistic and even more in francophone sociolinguistics where we note a great lack of interest of researchers to be interested in this framework of analysis which could generally find answers to certain question that have been debated in sociolinguistics. For this fact, I therefore think about “ linguistic community” for which the debates have sometimes led to the social community, sometimes to speech community or event ethno-sociolinguistic community. The following questions addressed by this article are: What is the CofP? What are its operational concepts and how sociolinguistics used them? Finally, what can the CofP bring to sociolinguistic in general and francophone sociolinguistics in particular? The idea of community of practice comes from a wide theoretical movement inspired by “ Situated Learning” and initiated by Lave and Wenger (1991), Wenger 1999, Wenger, McDermott and Synder (2002). According to these researchers, learning appears as an inseparable element of social practices in which members engage in joining activities and discussions, help each other, and share various information. In this sense, a CofP is a “ Groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic, and who depend on their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis” (Wenger, McDermott and Snyder 4). Based on this and other characteristics (like domain, community and practice), Wenger identifies three crucial dimensions of CofP: Mutual engagement, a joint negotiated enterprise and a share repertoire of negotiable resources accumulated over time. Mutual engagement is one of the characteristics of CofP in which members stow by the time, create collective resources, react, and negotiate the sense of themselves and construct apprenticeship. The other criteria defining the CofP, the joint enterprise, is the reason of the presence of the community because it involves the complex relationships of mutual responsibility that become part of the practice and understanding inside the community. Finally, the result of mutual engagement and joint enterprise is the sharing of the same repertoire. It concerns language, linguistic resources, routines, words, materials, procedures, symbols, styles, actions, gestures that have become part of the CofP or concepts created by the community during membership. The above development in relation with CofP have been made in the field of social sciences, precisely in the Anglo-Saxons science of education. The theory of CofP was introduced in sociolinguistic studies, in particular into language and gender research by Eckert and McConnell-Ginet (1992). Following Lave and Wenger (1991), they defined a CofP as follows: “ An aggregate of people who come together around mutual engagement in an endeavor. Ways of doing things, ways of talking, beliefs, values, power relations – in short, practices – emerge in the course of this mutual endeavor. As a social construct, a CofP is different from the traditional community, primarily because it is defined simultaneously by its membership and by the practice in which that membership engages. ” (464) This definition which suggests that the concept of CofP is dynamic, rich and complex one, emphases on language, practice and social meaning. In their research on language and gender, Eckert and McConnell-Ginet go from observation that there is no coherent theoretical framework defining relation between language and gender. For them, “ Gender is abstracted whole from other aspects of social identity, the linguistic system is abstracted from linguistic practice, language is abstracted from social action, interactions and events are abstracted from community and personal history, difference and dominance are each abstracted from wider social practice, and both linguistic and social behavior are abstracted from the communities in which they occur” . Thus, by using CofP framework and ethnographic approach to understand gender, the studies show that instead of considering gender as a set of predefined categories, and imposing it to individual by society, one has to perceive gender like a dynamic construction in relation not only with linguistic practices, but also with the other social practices. In this perspective, “ gender identity is negotiated through the individual interaction in specific findings communities [… ] scholars interested in language, gender, and sexuality, emphasizes the mutuality of the linguistic expression of gender identity and assumes that intragender differences are natural” (Ostermann, « Community » 7). In the same direction, Mallinson and Childs (2007) combine quantitative and qualitative methods to study language practices in two groups of Appalachian in United-States and arrive at the conclusion that “ language is one of several vehicles the women use to transmit symbolic messages to others and thereby construct identities for themselves and their groups, whose members adhere to different language ideologies, religious norms, notions of feminine decorum, and educational standards » (173). In the domain of language and gender, the studies are flourishing by their topics and mostly by their use of CofP. This framework has not only been used to questioning gender practices. Recently in 2020, research in Corpus Approaches to Social Media (Leuckert, S. et Leuckert, M.; Donlan) exploited it for their analyses of linguistic corpus in social media. Based on different plate-form; Twitter, Reddit, Facebook, and WhatsApp, etc., these authors innovate in the methodological point of view by using CofP. If Dolan (2000) analyses the power dynamics associated with language censorship in online CofP, Leuckert and Leuckert (2020) investigate to what extent the CofP concept can be applied to analyse user’ s self-understanding of the subedits, the words used online in reference of the community. Finally, these researchers arrived to conclude that all the criteria defining the CofP (mutual engagement, a joint enterprise, and a shared repertoire) are in interaction in the online discussion. Nevertheless, in the francophone literature, I consider that the CofP is a notion “ neglected” because only a few scholars have used it in their research. For now, the francophone sociolinguistic study which use the CofP are, according to my knowledge, those for Wilson (2020) and Ntedondjeu (2020). The first author uses CofP to examine linguistic behaviors in the domain of international tourism in Marseille. Identifying firstly some characteristics of the situation of study which can lead to identify it at “ situation de parole globalisé e” in which the participants know how to behave linguistically, Wilson conclude that we are in front of discount CofP because members haven’ t shared experience of tourism within the time. The studies of the second author use this theoretical approach to examine how linguistic diversity, manifests itself in Cameroon-based churches in the context of religious rites, but also how religious practices as well as language discourse of their performance contribute to giving significance to the rites, the languages used and eventually bring about language norms that contribute in the structuring and functioning of groups. To start, Ntedondjeu ask the question to know how the religious community can be considering as a CofP. He demonstrates that answers of this question are inside the characteristics of religious community, namely the fact that whenever, their members meet to learn about a precise domain of life, the faith in God. Furthermore, Christians weave social links during their engagement in religious rites, learn to know each other by the time and share experiences. From there, he analyses the uses of languages in the songs, in relations with the rites, the participants and general situation of communication. So by singing together in the same languages or in different languages, the members make the experience of the community by finding their voice mixed to the voice of other members. They produce, while singing together, the feeling to build a CofP. In the other hand, the discourse analysis on language use to accomplish practices in the churches shows that despite linguistic diversity, the sentiment to membership to a CofP is actual. Ntedondjeu research is a breakthrough in the operationalization of the CofP notion. She closes the gap that exists in terms of taking into account the language paradigm and particularly languages in the theorization and implementation of CofP through empirical results and reflection on linguistic and cultural diversity within religious communities.

French abstract: Cet article, en recourant à l'approche de Philippe Hamon sur L'Ironie litté raire, Essai sur les formes de l'é criture oblique (1996), a pour objet d'é tudier l’ ironie dans Les Choses de Georges Perec et les procé dé s qu'il met en oeuvre pour montrer cette ironie. Dans cet article, nous tenterons d'illustrer que pour critiquer la socié té moderne dans laquelle la publicité joue un rô le important, Perec profite de l'ironie. En se moquant des comportements et des pensé es de ces deux personnages maté rialistes qui sont incapables dans la connaissance du vrai et de la vé rité , l'auteur utilise des é lé ments ironiques qui donnent un ton ironique au roman. Pour ce faire, il se sert des procé dé s comme le narrateur hé té rodié gé tique, la polyphonie, l'intertextualité , les figures d'opposition, d’ insistance, d'analogie et de diction. Les é lé ments qui instaurent une distance entre l'é nonciation et l'é noncé , entre le narrateur et son discours, entre le lecteur et les personnages du ré cit. Les procé dures qui produisent un sentiment de distanciation et d'absurdité , essentiel dans l'ironie du XXe siè cle. English abstract: The Things (originally subtitled as "A History of the Sixties") is a novel by the French author, Georges Perec, published in 1965 by Maurice Nadeau in his collection of New Letters, at Julliard, and having received the Renaudot Prize the same year. In this novel, Perec tells the life of a young psychosociologist couple in the 1960s. Though they live in Paris, they find their life monotonous and then they dream to have more and more, to go on a trip and to become rich. . . but they do not give themselves the means to reach their goals. They try in vain to seek a passion, a purpose or an idea to give meaning to their lives. Sylvie and Jé rô me move to Tunisia, in Sfax, to test a new job offered to them. It's a failure. They returned to France, first to Paris and then to Bordeaux, where they eventually got a well-paid job. The last lines of the novel reveal that the material comfort they finally got, become the beginning of a dull life. This article, bested on Philippe Hamon's approach in L'Ironie litté raire, Essai sur les formes de l'é criture oblique (1996), aims to study irony in Georges Perec's "The Things" and to clarify the processes used by him to show this irony. In this article, we will try to illustrate the reason why Perec prefers to take advantage of the irony to criticize the modern society in which advertising plays an important role. By mocking the behaviors and thoughts of these two materialistic characters, incapable to accept the truth, the author uses ironic elements, giving an ironic tone to the novel. The article consists of two parts: The first part focuses on the literary register used in the novel. Perec wrote the novel in three important registers: ironic, satirical, and tragic. The main register of the novel is satirical which is adorned by the ironic and tragic register. In this novel, Perec gives us a portrait of the society through the lifestyle of his characters. Jé rô me and Sylvie are a psychosociologist couple from Paris, from the middle class. Their lives seem boring to them and this boredom is reflected in a burning desire for materiality. Perec criticizes consumerism society and shows how the behaviors of characters are determined by modern society and its temptations. The strength of this novel lies in the choice of an ironic tone that dominates the narrative. The author, ridiculing the behaviors of the people of his time towards the consumer society, uses ironic elements that give an ironic tone to the novel. Something interesting in Things is that, the author mixes the ironic register with the tragic register that shows the failure of the characters. Perec's Things is the story of radical disillusionment because heroes find themselves oppressed by the situation of their society against which they can do nothing. The heroes of Things are crushed under the pressure of history, living in the sixties, in the midst of a modern society with its crippling temptations. This novel, a story of disappointment, shows also the weakness of human being in front of his destiny. The second part, which is the main part of this article, examines the processes and elements of irony used in this novel. The signs of irony are quite evident both in the content and in the structure of this novel. At the level of enunciation, Perec uses processes such as heterogeneous narrator, polyphony and intertextuality. In Things, the heterogeneous and omniscient narrator narrates the story by using free indirect discourses. Then several voices overlap: that of the author, the narrator, the characters in the story and even the reader, which reveals the polyphonic dimension of the story. As we read the novel, we also see the traces of the intertextuality that Perec uses in his writing. Intertextuality allows him to emphasize the narrator's distance from statements that are not his own. Perec practices, therefore, the two essential elements of modern irony to give an ironic register to his work: polyphony and intertextuality. Stylistically, some style figures draw attention to the identification of oblique writing. Metaphors allow us to give derisory and cartoonish images of heroes and their lifestyle, who are in search of happiness through consumerism: the representation of the contemporary social situation of the author. Antiphrases and oxymorons, paradoxical notions, by introducing shifts from the referential, formal or semantic norm of discourse, aim for an effect of absurdity that trace us the empty passage. Perec has fun presenting the enumerations with accumulations to form a circular whole: to identify and then forget, the case of the dreams of heroes. Finally, in Things, the wordplay as well as the alliteration, repeating an identical sound, contributes essentially to illustrate a particular subject. On the syntactic level, we can observe the use of the imperfect verb (which is indeed used for free indirect speech) and conditional (to express the musings of heroes), but also the use of exclamation and questioning marks and the indefinite pronoun, the words in italics, which are particularly well suited to a game of contrast between dissonant points of view. With these studies, we can conclude that Georges Perec uses elements of irony to criticize his contemporary society, the consumer society. Although this society is rich and modern, there is a remarkable economic inequality. A society in which people are materialistic and feel the false infinite needs within themselves and experience the feelings such as emptiness and absurdity in their quest for happiness.

French abstract: Le ‘ contemporain’ comme notion esthé tique a partie lié e à un travail critique qui se propose d’ en dé finir les particularité s et les traits distinctifs. Ainsi, on peut supposer que la dé finition de la « litté rature contemporaine franç aise » remonte avant tout aux efforts critiques qui ont é té dé buté dans ce contexte depuis les anné es 1990. Cette dé finition passe souvent par les classifications conceptuelles dont la « fiction biographique », qui est une é tiquette gé né rique destiné e à distinguer les é critures biographiques contemporaines en ré gime romanesque par rapport aux exemples plus classiques du genre. En ce sens, cette notion est le ré sultat d’ une conceptualisation critique parallè le à la cré ation litté raire, qui se veut sensible à la fois à la tradition litté raire et aux é volutions contemporaines. Ainsi, il paraî t difficile d’ ignorer l’ influence pré gnante de la pensé e critique qui accompagne la pratique biographique, la lé gitime et y prê te un nouveau sens dans un marché du livre de plus en plus foisonnant. La pré sente é tude a pour objectif de projeter une nouvelle lumiè re sur l’ importance du travail critique dans le devenir du genre biographique à travers trois rô les que l’ on lui attribue: ‘ description’ , ‘ orientation’ et ‘ classification conceptuelle’ . English abstract: Since the 1980s, the French cultural context testifies to a change taking shape in the horizon of the biographical genre. After an ‟ eclipse of biography” , the genre becomes the object of a vast historical, sociological and literary reflection. If we consider this craze for biography, as a general feature of contemporary French culture, we are faced with a temporal phenomenon which covers without nuance ‟ our time” : a passage from the ‟ society of individuals” to the ‟ biographical condition” , the reason for which can be traced back to sociohistorical elements such as the ‟ return of the Subject” specific to contemporary individualism or the ‟ return of the past” with all its particularities specific to the present regime of historicity. But, if ‟ contemporary” is understood to be an aesthetic label, the notion of ‟ biographical fiction” is intended to designate the distinctive features of certain biographical productions of today in relation to a ‟ generic paradigm of reference” . In this sense, it proves impossible to close our eyes to the role that the critical authority plays in the definition of genres, and so the formation of our conception of contemporary literature. For instance, the biographical writing is far enough from being absent from mainstream French culture throughout the first half of the twentieth century, a period often referred to as the period of ‟ the eclipse of biography” . Thus, it can be assumed that terms such as ecstasy or climax of biography reflect less biographical practice than a critical consensus on this subject. What Jean-Marie Schaeffer qualifies as a ‟ hierarchy of specific attention” , which largely depends on the reading grids induced by critical projects. Therefore, we can say that the image that exists today of the profusion of biographical creation in the French context, without being false, depends primarily on critical work. As a result, the importance of a more detailed study of how this work is carried out and the role it plays in the fate of the biographical genre in the French context are represented. Indeed, what matters to us here is to highlight the critical work that accompanies biographical creation, to which we attribute three roles in the fate of the biographical genre and the construction of the image we have of it today. ‟ description” , ‟ orientation” and ‟ conceptual classification” . To write a biography is to settle into a generic inter-discourse. Therefore, it is difficult to imagine the state of a genre when this generic heritage is not defined. The impact of this communicational system or this inter-discourse becomes more significant if we consider the very particular way in which literature evolves in the French context where the new is generally defined by breaking with tradition. The French biographical cannot be excluded from this tradition. Chronologically, the existence of the ‟ tradition of rupture” required a relatively deep knowledge, detailed description and sometimes even a theorization of biographical practice. This gave birth to a biographical reflection, which certainly had an influence on the changes in biographical creation. A reflection whose origins can be traced back to the works of Sainte-Beuve. In fact, Sainte-Beuve set out to turn his ‟ biographical concern” into a literary theory which requires a first effort of ‟ description” , distinction and categorization. This leads to one of the first meta-discourses on the genre. It is in the same vein that we can reconsider the criticisms of Proust_ when he begins to judge with a contemptuous eye the Saint-Beuvienne ambition to seek the author characteristic in the text. Thus, Sainte-Beuve by his initiative, and Proust by his critical gesture, made the author’ s biography a subject of continuous debate in French literary criticism. Likewise, the influence of literary critical discourse on the way in which biographical writing evolves in a fictional regime can be great, especially when it is a question of an approving gesture or a ‟ return” on the part of the great masters of anti-biographical doxa. Here, we limit ourselves to the role played by two of them, that is to say Michel Foucault and Roland Barthes, on the new ‟ orientations” that biographical writing undergoes from the 1980s. This role is due as much to their critical contribution as their passion for some form of biographical practice. If we can attribute a legitimizing contribution and a guiding role to the gesture of the ‟ return” of the great masters of the anti-biographical doxa, we must consider such an important place for contemporary critical work. In fact, the perspective that is displayed today in front of us as the richness and variety of biographical writing in the French context is the result of a critical ‟ university” work which aims to be contemporary at work. The importance of this contemporaneity becomes greater, if one considers its novelty in the French context. Prior to this period, it was the authoritative authority and journalistic criticism that dealt with classifications and conceptualizations. However, from the years 1980-90, a French university critic, concerned about showing the richness of contemporary literature, proposed to look at the work of living authors. This inclination of academic criticism for contemporary creation and this synthetic and cohesive effort on the part of the university allows the works to emerge from their isolated state and come together under a precise generic category. Indeed, such a concentration on conceptual classifications allows firstly to build a certain form of synthesis, then secondly to practice more specific analyzes on each of the texts, in the light of the norms induced by the first synthesis. Not only does a classification as ‟ biographical fiction” diversifies the possibility of a critical dialogue with the legacy of the past, but also, once established, it opens up new horizons and outlines new spaces of possibilities in front of the new generation of writers, who in turn decides to join or play with it. And this is the second advantage of contemporary academic critical work at work: the ‟ incitement to creation” . A third advantage can be added to conceptual classifications: the idea of production profusion against literary sluggishness, or even ‟ literature in peril” , to use the title of Todorov’ s book.

French abstract: Traduire les oeuvres de Al-e Ahmad, en recré ant le rythme de la langue parlé e dans la langue cible est un travail difficile. Ayant utilisé des phrases cadencé es et saccadé es, plein d’ allité ration et de figure de style, il donne un rythme particulier à son é criture. Par une é tude traductologique concentré e sur les ré flexions d’ Henri Meschonnic, nous tentons à dé gager les difficulté s et impasses de la traduction de l’ oeuvre d’ Al-e Ahmad à travers la traduction d’ Une pierre posé e sur une tombe, son oeuvre posthume. Pour arriver à ce but, nous allons é tudier le rythme des phrases de Al-e Ahmad sous trois axes: rythme linguistique, rythme rhé torique et rythme poé tique. Nous allons constater que les problè mes d’ ordre linguistique causé s par la dé viation grammaticale et phonologicale d’ une part et des problè mes d’ ordre culturel, lié s aux contextes traditionnels iraniens d’ autre part sont des obstacles qui rendent difficile le travail du traducteur et l’ ont parfois poussé à utiliser certaines faç ons d’ adaptation causant ainsi une perte importante du rythme langagier de Al-e Ahmad. Etant donné que ce livre n’ est pas encore traduit en franç ais, les parties proposé es sont effectué es par l’ auteur de l’ article. English abstract: Recreating Al-e Ahmad’ s spoken language and ton in translation is a difficult task. His rhythmic and irregular sentences, full of alliteration and figure of speech characterize his writing. Through a translation study focused on the reflections of Henri Meschonnic, we tried to identify the difficulties and impasses of the translation of Al-e Ahmad's literary works by studding the translation of his posthumous book, A Stone upon A Grave. To achieve this goal, we study the pace of Al-e Ahmad's sentences under three axes: linguistic rhythm, rhetorical rhythm and poetic rhythm. We’ ll find that the linguistic problems caused by grammatical and phonological deviation on the one hand, and cultural problems linked to the traditional Iranian context, on the other hand, are obstacles that make the translator's task difficult, pushing him to use certain adaptations which may lead to a significant loss of Al-e Ahmad's language rhythm. Since this book is not yet translated into French, the proposed parties are selected by the author of the article. In this research, we propose to analyze the challenges posed by writer's book, A Stone upon A Grave. In this perspective, we will first categorize the linguistic rhythm of this writer into three axes: linguistic, rhetoric and poetic rhythm, according to Meschonnic's theory on orality and rhythm. We explain the peculiarities of his writing and then by translating few sentences taken from inside this book, we will demonstrate how the colloquial style and spoken language as well as the rhythm of Djalal Al-e Ahmad's writings could be translated into French and what are the obstacles and shortcomings. To begin this research, we asked ourselves the following questions for which we will try to find suitable answers. Here are our questions: 1. What are the peculiarities of Al-e Ahmad's writing? 2. How could the translator convey and make understandable the cultural, religious and syntactic elements of Al-e Ahmad's work in French? How can the translator recreate the rhythmic language of this Iranian writer in French? Despite the difficulties that we have mentioned in this article, such as the linguistic, lexical, phonological, cultural and religious problems linked to the Persian language-culture, the translators of the works of Al-e Ahmad such as Lazard and Kotobi still managed to make the author's bittersweet humor understandable and tried to find a compromise between a translation targeted at the reader and the semantic necessities of remaining as faithful as possible to the author, while recreating, as much as possible, the language rhythm of the text. In this perspective, we point out that the translation influences the cultural evolution of Iranian society by opening it to an unknown world, by enriching its vocabulary-despite the limits and standards to be respected-while facilitating its written or spoken communication. (Damadi, 1994, pp. 57-58). In this sense, this work intends to open new paths for researchers and for those who want to further discover the work of Al-e Ahmad or other writers, in order to make Persian literature translated into French more accessible. To translate Al-e Ahmad's work, the translator must be attentive to the various language levels used by the writer and choose an appropriate style for each of these works, so as not to give the receiver the impression that all these writings have been written in the same way. In translating the Al-e Ahmad's works, one should try to write in a style that will be the dynamic equivalent of the style of each passage from the original. It is absolutely necessary to avoid giving to his works a difficult and sophisticated aspect which is foreign to him. As regards the difficulties relating to the choice of the lexicon and the translation of proverbial expressions, an al-e Ahmadian text and its French translation can never be perfectly superimposable. The translator tends to obtain a translation that is faithful to the original text, but there are still cultural subtleties difficult to translate. Regarding the recreation of rhetorical and poetic rhythms in the target language, we must allude to the difficulties which lead the translator to adopt various strategies. In deconstructing the al-e Ahmadian text, the translator must consider the specificity of his writings, whether it is an autobiography, a short story or an essay. He must analyze the style and rhythm of his language. The translator must consider the socio-cultural context of the text and try to reconstruct it in the linguistic context of his own country. To conclude, this research allowed us to better understand the obstacles in the translation of the rhythm of the spoken language by Al-e Ahmad which are rooted rather in the style of this writer because he tended to use reduplication, to remove elements of sentences, to displace phonemes and to use cultural elements in his writing. This forces the translator to transform the rhythm of the spoken language using semantic substitution or the strategy of explaining the meaning. It should be pointed out that the most important difficulty lies in the fact that there is no French equivalent, sufficiently precise, capable of rendering the true meaning of the word of the original work. As a result, fidelity to the original text may suffer from this situation and possibly lose its neutrality. Today, Al-e Ahmad’ s work and its translation still demand much more in-depth study and professionally developed critiques which will open up more windows to various areas of research.

French abstract: Personnage clé de l’ enseignement, l’ enseignant occupe une place centrale dans le milieu scolaire. Accompagnant la vie des enfants, il peut jouer un rô le important dans l’ avenir de chaque socié té . Sensibles à ce rô le, certains auteurs, en Iran et en France, à travers leur é crits romanesques ou autobiographiques (ré cits scolaires), mettent à notre disposition des figures qui pourraient ê tre considé ré es comme modè le ou anti-modè le du bon enseignant. Dans ce travail, on s’ inté resse de prè s à ces figures pour savoir ce que pourraient ê tre les exigences de l’ enseignement. Cela devrait nous amener à dresser une typologie du « bon » enseignant. Pour dé limiter ce vaste sujet ainsi qu’ orienter notre travail vers une perspective pragmatique et effective, on se contente des relations pé dagogiques qui mettent en rapport l’ Instance scolaire à l’ enseigné par l’ intermé diaire de l’ enseignant dans le but de la « transmission du savoir ». Cela nous permettra de remettre en lumiè re la grandeur de la « mission » d’ enseignant. English abstract: Among the many characters who fill the school scene, the role of the teacher is considered more important than the others. This finds an absolute resonance with social reality, if one thinks of the preponderant place of the teacher in the school system. Quantitatively, the faculty makes up three fourth of the professionals in the school system. This is why Bourdieu and Passeron call teachers as ‟ interchangeable agents” of the School Authority. Likewise, at the qualitative level, we cannot neglect the great role that the teacher plays in the transmission of knowledge as an essential objective of the education system. Indeed, it is relatively impossible to imagine school without a teacher. Even where the number of school staff remains quite limited, one of them must necessarily fulfill this function. Even if nowadays we can replace face-to-face lessons with virtual education, or organize school time in a way other than annual (that is to say transform school space-time), the teacher remains the inseparable part of the process of transmitting knowledge. As a result, there is a need for more particular attention to the status of the teacher as represented in the literature, in order to better understanding the issues related to this profession, as well as those of the school environment. To achieve this objective, we imagine a triangle with three essential actors of the educational scene who establish a pedagogical relationship between them: school, teacher and learner. Indeed, if we consider the transmission of knowledge (teaching) as the objective of the education system, the hero of this quest can only be the teacher. Indeed, it seems that what largely impacts the way in which this quest is completed (with success or failure) is the link that the hero establishes with the other angles of the triangle: with the school, with his profession and the subject he teaches and with the learner. It should be noted that these links can take on various aspects and therefore be studied from various angles. In addition, the transmission of knowledge is certainly influenced by other elements going beyond the pedagogical relationships presented above. What interests us here is knowing the teaching profession and its challenges in order to obtain a typology of the ‟ good” teacher. This is why we limit ourselves to this triangle which includes the three essential actors of the educational scene whose relationship can significantly impact the result of the teacher’ s work. Of course, this typology is the result of a reading that admits its heuristic or even interpretive character, even if it remains subject to the injunctions of the chosen texts. In this study, we were able to emphasize the importance of the autonomy and individual intervention of the teacher in his relationship with the School Authority. He must know how to be a part of the system without diluting himself in it. In fact, by virtue of its heterogeneous and impersonal character, the School Authority does not go to a systematic typology; yet we can find in our texts a relatively unanimous criticism of certain characteristics of the School Authority compared to a ‟ wise old man, bearded, lonely and omniscient” who lives in his ivory tower. Where the teacher may be dependent or indifferent to the pedagogical theories that emanate from the Authority, the ‟ good” teacher shows initiative to achieve his goal. Indeed, the transmission of knowledge dates much more than current teaching methods. Relying too much on normative discourse to the detriment of individual creativity, cannot help the teacher to solve all the problems he encounters on his way. On the contrary, it even risks turning it into a machine just like the Institution. Thus, it is less pedagogical training than the passionate relationship with the profession that can guarantee the result of the teacher’ s work. Thus, after the relationship that the teacher establishes with the Institution, the second criterion that can define the result of his work is the link that attaches him to his profession. In this regard, three characteristics can help us to better classify the figures of the teacher in the texts of our corpus: passion, conviction and stubbornness. The first character goes back to the teacher’ s past, the second talks about his present, and the third is about his future. Regarding aspiration, two types of teacher can be identified in our texts: those who choose this profession by chance, those whose choice lies in love. After love comes belief in a job: conviction. Here again two types of teacher are represented by our authors: there are those who make fun of the banality of their work and those who ‟ believed in their profession” . After love and belief, the third criterion which largely impacts the outcome of the work of teaching and thus distinguishes a good teacher from a bad example, is stubbornness or ‟ conviction despite everything” . The ‟ everything” can still take on various aspects. Indeed, the difficulties of teaching work can each be related to one of the angles of our triangle. Sometimes it is in the face of problems, or even lack of institutional order, that the teacher must experience obstinacy; sometimes he is invited to resist in the face of doubts and the precariousness of his profession which precisely target his love and his conviction; sometimes he has to show determination to help children who have difficulty integrating into the school environment. In other words, if the teacher considers that a learner is less intelligent, is invited to make every effort to get him out of his condition. With this last point, we are gradually approaching the third angle of our triangle: what our authors require or even advice regarding the link established between teacher and learner. As we know, the Institution is formed by its impersonal character. This establishes a certain distance in the child / adult relationship. In order for the transmission of knowledge to be carried out satisfactorily, the teacher is asked to bridge this distance by his individual initiative, by his personal touch. Thus, it seems that where the relationship between teacher and learner is placed under the sign of empathy, learner success is highly likely. Indeed, the impersonal nature of the Institution makes it incapable of considering particular cases. However, it is often the latter who become the hero of the novel, precisely because of their particularity. These cases allow the authors to compare two possible positions of teachers: those who prefer not to interfere, putting all the inefficiencies of the system behind the teacher’ s back; those who, on the other hand, put all their zeal for the benefit of the child, thus betting on the inefficiency of the system. Thus, if the authors are frequently interested in this interaction between the individual and the Institution, it is both to criticize the shortcomings of the School Authority and to highlight individual initiatives as the only possible solution. If we accept that the rupture of the family world can be one of the essential reasons for anguish and “ school sorrow” , our authors invite teachers to fill this gap and cover this rupture by playing the role of companion with the child: a repository of knowledge who does not abuse his power. In 2011, Abdolhossein Azarang by publishing his autobiography set out to fill the lack of ‟ written experiences” capable of learning how to be a ‟ good” teacher. In the same vein, our work has been an effort to find the possible answers to this question through a thematic reading of certain texts belonging to the literary institution. Even so, there is not a single text that claims to have a definitive answer to this question, but taken together it would be possible to have an outline of what a ‟ good” teacher should be. Curious are the enormous similarities that can exist between our French and Iranian texts, the publication dates of which sometimes differ by about thirty years. Indeed, even if the teaching methods keep improving and even changing, it seems that the essence of the profession remains immutable. What we have tried to highlight in this work.