JOURNAL OF LITERARY CRITICISM AND RHETORIC
Year:2021 | Volume:9 | Issue:4|Papers Count:8

Human existence, along with the functions and origins it reveals, draw from a wide variety of sources. One of these basic sources that overshadows human existence are archetypes. Archetypes are images or symbols of the human subconscious that control the human mind, thought, and behavior and manifest themselves in human social, cultural, and artistic life in a variety of forms. These images are hidden in the human subconscious and are the source of the myths, rituals and narratives. The sun is one of the common archetypes between different human races that has created and dealt with various mythical narratives among nations. This archetype is one of the most basic elements of the mentality and thought of Iranian myths that has preserved its dominance and reflection in Iranian thought, mentality, artistic and literary heritage in different historical, cultural and social periods from ancient times until now. Among the social and cultural classes of any society and nation, poets are one of the most important classes-who, through their poetry, inherit all kinds of archetypal themes and images and transfer them to the sphere of thought and culture of the later period. The sun is one of the common archetypes of human races that is revealed with different themes in the cultural works of different races. Nizamuddin Astarabadi is one of the poets on the horizon of Persian language and literature who uses images and themes related to the archetype of the sun in his poetry in a prominent and distinctive way. The reflection of this ancient archetype in Nizamuddin Astarabadi's intellectual mindset is the subject of this research. In this article, Nizamuddin Astarabadi's Divan is studied based on Jung's theory of archetypal analysis and the effect of the archetype of the sun on the poet's intellectual system is described and analyzed. According to the analysis of the archetype of Nizamuddin Astarabadi's divan, "power and crowning, wealth, beauty, life" are among the themes that repeat the use of the archetype of the sun in Nizamuddin Astarabadi's poetry. The dominance of this archetype in the intellectual and artistic space of this poet has a prominent and distinct function in the illustration and poetic descriptions of Nizamuddin.

Structure refers to a connection between segments of the text so none of them is considered arbitrary or random. One of the main differences between Nimaian Poetry and Persian classic poetry lies in their structure. Persian classical poetry usually lacks one main structure and every single couplet of any poem is more or less independent. This is mainly true about lyric poetry like Qazals not about long and obviously narrative poems like Shahnameh or Khosrow va Shirin. The structure of Nimaian Poetry has not been studied thoroughly yet and what has been emphasized generally is the connection between the images. Certain concepts from postclassical narratology can be used in order to analyze the structure of Nima's poems. In the classic or structuralist narratology genres like fable, short story, and novel which have a strong and obvious narrative aspect were mainly the subject of study. In the postclassical narratology, on the other hand, other genres and media which have not such an obvious narrative aspect and were not studied by the classical narratology, concern the narratologists. For example, postclassical narratology tends to study phenomena such as performative arts, lyric poetry, and even music. Eventfulness is one of the concepts from narratology that can help us to analyze the structure of Nimaian poetry. Event is the crucial turning in the narrative text. The structure of Nima's poems usually is based on a plot that ends in an event. Deviation from schemata determines the level of eventfulness. The concept of schema originally comes from cognitive sciences. Schemata are models that are familiar to minds. There are two kinds of schema: Frame and Script. Frames are static but scripts consist of a sequence of incidents. There are three main kinds of event in poetry: event in happenings, presentation event, and reception event. Nima's poems usually contain an event and exemplify all these three kinds of event.

Narrative techniques are the techniques of storytelling that have changed in postmodern literature. In general, postmodern works seem abnormal and chaotic and cannot be analyzed as traditional works. In this literary style novels, the principles that in fiction literature belong to a specific plot, beginning and ending, coherent linear narrative, explicit language and systematic narrative are changed and if the reader of postmodern works has no knowledge about the way of writing, reading these works becomes boring and their study my be incomplete. The form of such writings also adds to the complexity of the text and provides the basis for multiple readings. This literary type has had an undeniable impact on the flow of Iranian art and literature. Despite being recognized and accepted, due to the lack of complete familiarity with the origins, principles and components of this style, there is still doubt about its presence in Iranian fiction. This skepticism has created enough motivation for case studies to investigate and identify the backgrounds, principles and characteristics of postmodernism in Persian stories. Among Iranian fiction works, Ravanipour's novel "Del Foolad" is considered as a postmodernist novel. In this article, the novel has been studied from the perspective of narrative elements to evaluate the validity of the existing view. For doing so, "Del Foolad" was studied on the basis of postmodernist theories of reading and narrative techniques, as well as the role of narrative in highlighting its style. The result of this analytical-descriptive research showed that components such as time irregularity in the narration of events, vicious circle, special characters, language play and extremes in the use of imaginary forms, contradictions and intertextuality and polyphony are highlighted in this novel. Therefore, the validity of the perspectives on the influence of postmodern literary school on this novel can be considered as a proof of the influence of western postmodern literature on Persian fiction literature.

The issue of place, its typology, and the relations between the subject and the place are important elements in any discourse and genre studies. To analyze any discourse, it is also essential to discover the hidden layers in such relations, and Tasawwuf, as a discourse is no exception to this rule. To discover and spot such relations, the authors, by studying TheMaghamat of Abu Sa’ eed, and considering Neishabour as the bigger place and khaneqah as the focal place of the discourse, intended to illustrate that before the presence of Abu Sa’ eed, Neishabour had enjoyed a civic structure, and semantic continuity, and it also was a place of “ integrations” , until the distinguishing presence of Abu Sa’ eed, affected the city’ s integration and its practical elements, and led to a “ spatial disintegration” . In other words, the agency of the subject “ reconstructed” the authority of the place in such a way that the governing discourse of religion faded and the mosque was marginalized by the khaneqah. Meanwhile, khaneqah, on its route to gain the discursive control, as a place for educating the Sufis, turned into a “ network of induction” in which the relationship between the sufi’ s spiritual rank and his position in the Khaneqah in one hand and the architectural arrangement of the khaneqah and the geometry of power in the discourse of Tasawwuf on the other hand were balanced. The present study showed that there were three kinds of relationship between the participant and place: first, when the primary function of the place is to set a context for the narrative domain, the subject has superiority over the place; second, when the place gives the participant a meaning and identity previously lacking, the place has superiority over the participant; and third, when the intention of the subject is to interact with the place and in so doing both give meaning to and get meaning from each other. The study also showed that Abu Saeed’ s agency in all these acts and their interactions finally set the stage for the expansion, spread and the entrance of the newly found discourse of the subject in power relations.

With the development of new theories, the critique of literary works has taken a different path, and new areas such as interdisciplinary studies have emerged that they have led to the recognition of new capacities and perceptions of literary works. One of these studies is between fiction and dramatic literature. These two fields have been connected for a long time and have become very close in the contemporary period, especially with the development and expansion of cinema, so today, the drama uses the capacities of fiction and fiction uses some features of drama to some extent. Fiction literature as the basis of dramatic and cinematic works has a significant role in the production of these works. With this explanation, this study tries to critique the two works "Cosima or almost Grazia" by "Grazia Deledda" and " Lidded Mirrors" by "Houshang Golshiri" based on the model of Gustav Freytag, a German playwright, and critic. The Freytag pattern is essentially a theatrical structure that reveals events in chronological order in a novel, film or other work of fiction. This model is a proposed pyramid for analyzing the narrative structure of tragic stories and includes five parts or stages, including Introduction, Rise, climax, Return or Fall, and Catastrophe, Allows the study of works based on a three-curtain structure. The method of this research is descriptive-analytical and library and documentary method in the form of comparative study. Based on the research findings, these two works correspond to the five stages of this model and have a dramatic structure. Although these two works are from two different schools and styles; But their conformity with this pattern shows that these two works have a common structure and beyond the narrative, they also have dramatic feature and have the ability to pay for a three-act structure that is considered as a narrative model in drama.

Because In Al-Mu'jam fi Ma'a'ir Ash'ar alAjam there is not Reference to the Naqd al-shi'r and its writer, Qudama-ibn ja'far, only with A little cautious can talking about familiarity of Shams Qays Razi with Qudama-ibn ja'far’ s opinions and ideas in Poetry Criticism, that in last Centuries means Understanding good and bad poetry, and Reproduce them in AlMu'jam fi Ma'a'ir Ash'ar alAjam. What reinforces this idea, are similarities in these two books about the Defects of poetry like contradiction, Verbal and semantic errors, Features praise and other. For example, “ Takhli” in Al-Mu'jam is equal to the three parts of “ Deviation from metre” in Naqd al-shi'r; “ Monaqeze” in Al-Mu'jam can be considered “ Estehale & Tanaqoz” in Naqd al-shi'r; “ Verbal errors” in Al-Mu'jam can be equated with word-weight’ s Coordination in Naqd al-shi'r; the defect of "Tafwif" in Al-Mu'jam can be seen in the Qudama-ibn ja'far’ s words about the defects of the word etc. The similarity between Shams Qays Razi and Qudama-ibn ja'far’ s ideas and opinions about praise and its quality, in the period of dependence of literature and poetry on the courts and institutions of power and the period of the spread of court poems, is also very interesting. Of course, it is reminded that sometimes Shams Qays Razi’ s ideas are different or more voluminous Compared with Qudama-ibn ja'far’ s ideas. Also Because Naqd al-shi'r is the first rhetorical book that has combined Islamic rhetoric with Greek rhetoric, so Shams Qays Razi according to His influences from Naqd al-Shi'r, is the first to introduce Greek philosophical and rhetorical material into Persian books and in this way it has influenced Persian rhetorical books. But Naqd al-shi'r, Due to having rule in introducing poetry criticism and having Pattern for knowing the good and bad standards of poetry is more methodical than AlMu'jam fi Ma'a'ir Ash'ar alAjam.

Transition from common and prevalent dual substructure and superstructure and crossing political, social well known situation as main motives and vanables in formation of subject and concepts providing a possibility in literary criticism in order to regard. Contexts from different angles and through this reveal contexts semantic layers. Regarding this issue, in questing theoretical basis of Sadegh Hedayats nihilistic thoughts we can point another important factor and motive besides regarding the role of important components such as economic, socialand political components and in the light of it present an explanation for the thoughts of this prominent author. In this article Sadegh Hedayats Thought thatindicate an absurd world, meaningless and purpose and full of Multidimensionaland Complicated Contradictions, are being readout in the light of a “ Scientific revolution” . What is meant by scientific revolution in this article is a conceptthat is used by Thomas Samuel Kuhn the theorist of Philosophy of Science In the twentieth century, in order to explain the some of the most importantintellectual and social changes in Western traditions. He believed that scientific revolutions would create new paradigms. The results of this research that are obtained from studying some of Sadegh Hedayats short stories, scripts and articles, indicate that dominant mentality of this contemporary author and intellectual in confronting with world and generally the theoretical basis of his thoughts, are conformated by confrontation with Charles Darwins materialistic and evolutionary thoughts. From this perspective Hedayats absurd world and his dominant mental axes, are rooted in an evolution and revolution in the field ofexperimental science. This revolution which in the result proposed the new and novel narratives of mankind, world, and god against Traditional grand narrative and Cliché narrative were leaded to engender a type of epistemological rupture and the present article tries to make understand Sadegh Hedayat in this important rupture.

The modernism contents of the modernity concepts such as "home country, the law and the liberty are galore in literature” can be seen in most opuses. As other eras, the origin of these literary contents should be investigated in other fields rather than literature. These factors are those which affect the nation awareness and create the important opuses. By profound thinking on these opuses, we can perceive the unique and particular worldviews of their authors. The political and social conditions of that era and the criticism against them are the main points of modern opuses. Though these concepts cry out for the human rights in the first place, getting involved in intellectual (isms) such as Nationalism, Nihilism, Chauvinism, etc reminds us of a more special meaning of modernity. Studying some of the literary works, indulgence in modernist thoughts, has caused some kind of contradiction in modernist viewpoints. Though the political and social conditions of that era and the criticism against them are the main points of modern opuses. But not all the critics have the same view on the problems. Tendency to plays and writing them was increased in this era and theatres became places for socialpolitical criticism. Poets like Eshqi, Iraj Mirza and Aref Qazvini wrote dramatic literary works with a critical viewpoint. Each one of these poets started to fight through their writings with their own ideology and for the purpose of political-social betterment. Therefor this research contains the main points, the differences and similarities of dramatic opuses and their creator’ s ideas with considering of being in same time, same society, same conditions and also historical incidents and etc. to recognize the essential factors which could effect on the three writers orientations. Eshqi and Aref had a completely political point of view while Iraj – as an aristocrat – worked on social criticism in a more artistic way.